Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.6 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 27273 101835 100523 2026-06-11T17:46:58Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 101835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shangani''' be a river insyd [[Zimbabwe]] wey dey start near Gweru. Gweru River be one of ein main tributaries, wey e dey go thru Midlands den Matabeleland North provinces. E dey empty into de Gwayi River. Na de Shangani River be de site of de 4 December 1893 Shangani Patrol battle insyd wich na dem kill Major Allan Wilson den 31 men of de British South Africa Company by de Matabele warriors. Only two Americans, Frederick Russell Burnham den Pete Ingram, den one Australian, W.L. Gooding, survive de attack.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dahlin|first1=T.|last2=Owen|first2=R.|date=1998|title=Geophysical investigations of alluvial aquifers in Zimbabwe|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.201407067|journal=4th EEGS Meeting|publisher=European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers|doi=10.3997/2214-4609.201407067|isbn=978-94-6282-127-9|s2cid=55982331 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == References == <references />{{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Zimbabwe]] jlnaqm9chxlsw9230oy80cxbvhd20tq 0 27274 101842 100524 2026-06-11T18:06:01Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 101842 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De ''' Oṣun River''' (dem samtimes spell '''Oshun''', Yoruba: Odò Ọ̀ṣun), be a river of Yorubaland wey dey rise insyd Ekiti State wey e dey flow westwards into Osun State before turning southwestwards at ein confluence plus de Erinle River near de town of Ede wey then dey head south at de Asejire reservoir wey dey flow thru de rest of de state den Ogun State insyd Southwestern [[Nigeria]] before eventually discharging into de Lekki Lagoon den de Atlantic at de [[Gulf of Guinea]]. Dem name de river after de deity Oṣun, one of de most popular den venerated Orishas.<ref name="Murrell2009">{{cite book|last1=Murrell|first1=Nathaniel Samuel|title=Afro-Caribbean Religions: An Introduction to Their Historical, Cultural, and Sacred Traditions|date=2009|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=9781439901755|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9h5KDRfZ-JgC&q=oshun+&pg=PA35}}</ref> De annual traditional worship at de Ọs&#x323;un Shrine near de Ọṣun River at Osogbo cam be a popular pilgrimage den important tourist attraction, wey dey draw people from all over Nigeria den abroad to de annual [[festival]] insyd August. Oṣun be one of de river goddesses insyd Yorubaland, she be noted for providing for de needs of de people. As a mortal, na she be reputedly one of de wifeys of &#x323;Ṣango, de Alaafin of Oyo den de Yoruba god of thunder. Dem say Osun to be a native of Igede-Ekiti, headquarters of Irepodun/Ifelodun local government area, Ekiti state, Nigeria hence ein main source dey situate at Igede-Ekiti. Osun, third kiddie of de marriage between Ake (a hunter den prince from Ile-Ife) den Erindo (Ake ein wifey) wey sanso go give birth to fifteen more kiddies wey dey include de popular Rivers Ogbese den Elemi. While na Ogbese be de brand legend of de old Afrikola, Elemi river continue to adorn de beauty of dema land. Osun, de second wifey of Alaafin Ṣango, turn to a river after she loose insyd de contest of who go succeed dema poppie, Ake. Insyd de olden days during war times, na dem consider incantation de most potent form of weapon. Hence, de smartest den de very vast one wey dey carry de day. Na "Igede" be a derivative of "Ogede"- wey dey mean incantation den finally cam be "Igede" by nominalisation. So, "Ilè Ògèdè anaa Igede dey mean de land of incantation. Igede-Ekiti be home to more dan sixteen rivers, wey na dem no prove otherwise by anybro anaa any documents say no river dey flow into Igede-Ekiti from anywhere. Instead, rivers dey flow from Igede-Ekiti to oda towns den places. E be an old belief say de river goddess be able to give babies to de barren women den change de lives of chaw people.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7KbLLjzuRgC&q=Osun+River+Goddess&pg=PA132|isbn=9781888729177|page=132|title=Sacred Places of Goddess: 108 Destinations|publisher=CCC Publishing|year=2005|author=Katen Tate}}</ref> Der sanso be chaw fictional stories about goddess Oṣun, wey dey include ''Shegun Coker and the Cursed Temple'' by Kolawole Michael, 2008.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIx0TjQb8yEC&q=Osun+River&pg=PA10|title=Osun across the Waters: A Yoruba Goddess in Africa and the Americas|isbn=9780253108630|author=Joseph M. Murphy, Mei-Mei Sanford|page=10|year=2001|publisher=Indiana University Press}}</ref> Insyd 2018, de river suddenly begin to change color den investigation by Urban Alert (a civic-tech nonprofit organization) reveal say illegal den unregulated licensed gold mining activities at de headwaters upper course be de root cause.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2022-06-20|title=INVESTIGATION: How illegal mining fuels poverty, river pollution, sacred grove desecration in Osun|url=https://www.thecable.ng/investigation-how-illegal-mining-fuels-poverty-river-pollution-sacred-grove-desecration-in-osun|access-date=2022-06-24|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}</ref> De activities of dese miners contaminate de river plus heavy metals, thereby threatening de river den de Osun Osogbo Sacred Grove. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Oshun River}} [[Category:Rivers of Nigeria]] [[Category:Osun State]] [[Category:Rivers of Yorubaland]] [[Category:Sacred rivers]] gl05wp6a2fcvumhgn97msl4d9bvseb8 0 27275 101849 100526 2026-06-11T18:47:22Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 101849 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Oba River''' (Yoruba: '''Odo Ọba''') be a river insyd Oyo den Osun States insyd Nigeria. E be de main tributary of de [[Osun River]]. De landscape dey vary from wooded savanna insyd de north to rain forest insyd de south. Chaw of de people wey dey live along ein length practice farming den fishing. ==Name== De Ọba River be named for de goddess Ọba, one of de wifeys of Shango, de Yoruba god of thunder. Ein oda wifeys be Ọshun den Ọya.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} According to legend, Ọshun trick Ọba into cutting off ein ear wey she add am to Shango ein chow, wey she say e go please am. Wen Shango find out wat na Ọba do he cam be, furious, screamed wey Osun den Oba flee frighten, turning into de two rivers. Dat be why de meeting point of de Osun den Oba rivers be so rushing.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} == References == mrjal829gzgqmctsmmaa15ga7ajvxze 101850 101849 2026-06-11T18:56:30Z DaSupremo 9 /* Course */ Improve article 101850 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Oba River''' (Yoruba: '''Odo Ọba''') be a river insyd Oyo den Osun States insyd Nigeria. E be de main tributary of de [[Osun River]]. De landscape dey vary from wooded savanna insyd de north to rain forest insyd de south. Chaw of de people wey dey live along ein length practice farming den fishing. ==Name== De Ọba River be named for de goddess Ọba, one of de wifeys of Shango, de Yoruba god of thunder. Ein oda wifeys be Ọshun den Ọya.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} According to legend, Ọshun trick Ọba into cutting off ein ear wey she add am to Shango ein chow, wey she say e go please am. Wen Shango find out wat na Ọba do he cam be, furious, screamed wey Osun den Oba flee frighten, turning into de two rivers. Dat be why de meeting point of de Osun den Oba rivers be so rushing.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} ==Course== De Oba River be de main tributary of de Osun River. E dey rise about {{convert|15|km|mi|0}} north of Ogbomosho insyd Oyo State.{{sfn|Adeboye|Alatise|2008|p=76}} De river dey flow past Ogbomosho, wer e be dammed.{{sfn|Adegbite|2014}} Dem plete de Ogbomoso Reservoir on de Oba River insyd 1964, dey cover an area of {{convert|137.6|ha}} wey get a storage capacity of {{convert|3520|Ml}}.{{sfn|Akintola|Gbadegesin|1997|p=315}} De dam be fed by de Idekun, Eeguno, Akanbi Kemolowo, Omoogun den Yàkù streams, wey e get a catchment area of {{convert|321|km2}}. == References == <references /> == External links == kc2klynn7xmapfzcasts6cgz5pl6dxb 101854 101850 2026-06-11T19:02:15Z DaSupremo 9 /* Course */ Improve article 101854 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Oba River''' (Yoruba: '''Odo Ọba''') be a river insyd Oyo den Osun States insyd Nigeria. E be de main tributary of de [[Osun River]]. De landscape dey vary from wooded savanna insyd de north to rain forest insyd de south. Chaw of de people wey dey live along ein length practice farming den fishing. ==Name== De Ọba River be named for de goddess Ọba, one of de wifeys of Shango, de Yoruba god of thunder. Ein oda wifeys be Ọshun den Ọya.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} According to legend, Ọshun trick Ọba into cutting off ein ear wey she add am to Shango ein chow, wey she say e go please am. Wen Shango find out wat na Ọba do he cam be, furious, screamed wey Osun den Oba flee frighten, turning into de two rivers. Dat be why de meeting point of de Osun den Oba rivers be so rushing.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} ==Course== De Oba River be de main tributary of de Osun River. E dey rise about {{convert|15|km|mi|0}} north of Ogbomosho insyd Oyo State.{{sfn|Adeboye|Alatise|2008|p=76}} De river dey flow past Ogbomosho, wer e be dammed.{{sfn|Adegbite|2014}} Dem plete de Ogbomoso Reservoir on de Oba River insyd 1964, dey cover an area of {{convert|137.6|ha}} wey get a storage capacity of {{convert|3520|Ml}}.{{sfn|Akintola|Gbadegesin|1997|p=315}} De dam be fed by de Idekun, Eeguno, Akanbi Kemolowo, Omoogun den Yàkù streams, wey e get a catchment area of {{convert|321|km2}}. De Oba dey continue south from de dam til e dey join de Oshun River just above de settlement of Odo Oba. Settlements along ein course from north to south dey include Apo, Iluju, Obada, Mosunmade, Otuokun, Bale, Olori den Olumoye. De river dey receive a left tributary just downstream from Obada den anoda left tributary to de south of Olori. De second tributary dey flow past Ife Odan.{{sfn|Olafisoye|2011|p=357}} De Ọba River dey join de Ọ̀ṣun River insyd a series of rapids.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} De two rivers dey meet at de northern end of de Asejire Reservoir.{{sfn|Olafisoye|2011|p=357}} == References == <references /> == External links == 28biosays9j53qhj436gtsvrops2722 101855 101854 2026-06-11T19:04:59Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 101855 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Oba River''' (Yoruba: '''Odo Ọba''') be a river insyd Oyo den Osun States insyd Nigeria. E be de main tributary of de [[Osun River]]. De landscape dey vary from wooded savanna insyd de north to rain forest insyd de south. Chaw of de people wey dey live along ein length practice farming den fishing. ==Name== De Ọba River be named for de goddess Ọba, one of de wifeys of Shango, de Yoruba god of thunder. Ein oda wifeys be Ọshun den Ọya.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} According to legend, Ọshun trick Ọba into cutting off ein ear wey she add am to Shango ein chow, wey she say e go please am. Wen Shango find out wat na Ọba do he cam be, furious, screamed wey Osun den Oba flee frighten, turning into de two rivers. Dat be why de meeting point of de Osun den Oba rivers be so rushing.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} ==Course== De Oba River be de main tributary of de Osun River. E dey rise about {{convert|15|km|mi|0}} north of Ogbomosho insyd Oyo State.{{sfn|Adeboye|Alatise|2008|p=76}} De river dey flow past Ogbomosho, wer e be dammed.{{sfn|Adegbite|2014}} Dem plete de Ogbomoso Reservoir on de Oba River insyd 1964, dey cover an area of {{convert|137.6|ha}} wey get a storage capacity of {{convert|3520|Ml}}.{{sfn|Akintola|Gbadegesin|1997|p=315}} De dam be fed by de Idekun, Eeguno, Akanbi Kemolowo, Omoogun den Yàkù streams, wey e get a catchment area of {{convert|321|km2}}. De Oba dey continue south from de dam til e dey join de Oshun River just above de settlement of Odo Oba. Settlements along ein course from north to south dey include Apo, Iluju, Obada, Mosunmade, Otuokun, Bale, Olori den Olumoye. De river dey receive a left tributary just downstream from Obada den anoda left tributary to de south of Olori. De second tributary dey flow past Ife Odan.{{sfn|Olafisoye|2011|p=357}} De Ọba River dey join de Ọ̀ṣun River insyd a series of rapids.{{sfn|Hill|2007|p=51}} De two rivers dey meet at de northern end of de Asejire Reservoir.{{sfn|Olafisoye|2011|p=357}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *{{cite journal|url=http://www.nipng.org/Onlineissues/vol21_2_2010/Adabanija_Sunmonu.pdf|last1=Adabanija|first1=M. A.|last2=Sunmonu|first2=L. A.|journal=Nigerian Journal of Physics|volume=21|issue=2|year=2010|title=Radiometric mapping of lower Oba river flood plain sediments, Ogbomoso South-western Nigeria|accessdate=2014-08-24|archive-date=26 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115742/http://www.nipng.org/Onlineissues/vol21_2_2010/Adabanija_Sunmonu.pdf|url-status=dead}} *{{cite journal |url=http://agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/01334.pdf |last1=Adeboye|first1=Omotayo B.|last2=Alatise|first2=Olarewaju M. |journal=Soil & Water Res.|volume=3 |year=2008 |issue=2 |title=Surface Water Potential of the River Osun at Apoje Sub-basin Nigeria|accessdate=2014-08-24}} *{{cite journal |url=http://www.tribune.com.ng/agriculture/item/4618-northern-farmers-turning-oba-river-plain-to-gold-mine/4618-northern-farmers-turning-oba-river-plain-to-gold-mine |last=Adegbite|first=Adewuyi |date=2014-05-05|title=Northern farmers turning Oba River plain to gold mine|journal=Nigerian Tribune|accessdate=2014-08-24}} *{{cite book|url=http://ks360352.kimsufi.com/redbooks/a243/iahs_243_0313.pdf|last1=Akintola|first1=F.O.|last2=Gbadegesin|first2=Adeniyi|title=Freshwater Contamination (Proceedings of Rabat Symposium S4, April-May 1997)|publisher=AHS Publ|year=1997|chapter=Land-use changes and water quality in impounded water-supply dams in southwest Nigeria|accessdate=2014-08-24}} *{{cite book |last=Hill|first=Donald R.|title=Caribbean Folklore: A Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gbowblf1QP8C&pg=PA51|accessdate=2014-08-24 |year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33605-8}} *{{cite journal |url=http://www.sibran.ru/upload/iblock/6b0/6b0c1aff1c148770d34e9760e357ff24.pdf |last=Olafisoye |first=O. B. |journal=Chemistry for Sustainable Development |volume=19 |year=2011 |title=Estimation of Organic Pollution of Odo Oba River (Osun State, Nigeria) |accessdate=2014-08-24 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809090549/http://sibran.ru/upload/iblock/6b0/6b0c1aff1c148770d34e9760e357ff24.pdf |url-status=dead }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Oba River}} [[Category:Rivers of Nigeria]] [[Category:Osun State]] [[Category:Rivers of Yorubaland]] cfy2uzcn6y4xhqda69v0i2apo10qqgv 0 27276 101857 100534 2026-06-11T19:21:01Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 101857 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Keta Lagoon''', dem sanso call '''Anlo-Keta lagoon''', be de largest for over 90 lagoons<ref name="oceandocs1">{{Cite web |date= |title=Management Issues for the Sustainable Use of Lagoon Fish Resources |url=http://www.oceandocs.net/bitstream/1834/699/1/ICLARM2427.pdf |access-date=2014-03-07}}</ref> wey cover 550&nbsp;km stretch for de coastline for Ghana. Dis lagoon be 126.13&nbsp;km for length. Edey locate insyd de eastern coast for Ghana wey e be separated from de [[Gulf of Guinea]]<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Gulf of Guinea (gulf, Atlantic Ocean) - Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248843/Gulf-of-Guinea |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> by a narrow strip of sandbar. Dis open salty water be surrounded by flood plains den mangrove swamps. Togeda dem form de Keta Lagoon Ramsar site<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clearing House mechanism of Ghana - Convention on Biological Diversity |url=http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal./ramsar-sites/keta-lagoon-complex |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140307234545/http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal./ramsar-sites/keta-lagoon-complex |archive-date=7 March 2014 |access-date=2 February 2022 |website=gh.chm-cbd.net}}</ref> wer cover 1200&nbsp;km² Seasonal inflow for sea water dey occur during high tide from de Gulf of Guinea den regular inflow of rivers. De rivers wich dey drain into de lagoon include de Aka, de Tordzi River den Belikpa stream<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Belikpa (stream) |url=http://gh.geoview.info/belikpa,2303213 |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Gh.geoview.info}}</ref> wer dem dey enter de lagoon from de north. De lagoon be surrounded by chaw settlements. De towns include Anloga, Woe, Keta den Kedzi to de south, Aborlove Nolopi, Anyako den Anlo Afiadenyigba to de north, Kodzi, Alakple den Tregui to de west den Denu den Adina to de east. Over de years population growth, extensive human activities den climate change all contribute to reduce de volume of water insyd de lagoon wich dey appear to be drying up. De lagoon cam be part of de daily existence for de people insyd [[Anlo Ewe|Anlo]] land. Insyd 1992 de Keta Lagoon be place on de list of Wetlands for International Importance by de Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, den in 1999 work dem begin on measures to limit more erosion den to control flooding of de coastal region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-12-07 |title=Keta (Ghana) - Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315645/Keta |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> [[File:Gbe_languages.png|right|thumb|Keta Lagoon dey insyd de south-western end of de region settled by de Ewe people]] Dis Lagoon got ein name den prominence from the settlement for [[Anlo Ewe|Anlo]]- Ewes <ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=African Culture - The Anlo-Ewe People |url=http://africaimports.com/anlo-ewe-people-group.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308044100/http://africaimports.com/anlo-ewe-people-group.asp |archive-date=2014-03-08 |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Africa Imports}}</ref> buh more especially for de town Keta den dey put for use. De inhabitants for de area surrounding de lagoon be de descendants for Anlo Ewe groups wey dey settle for Anlo land. Dema ancestors migrate from Notsie insyd central [[Togo]] insyd de mid –seventeenth century.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=African Drumming - dancedrummer.com - Anlo-Ewe History |url=http://www.dancedrummer.com/history.html |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=dancedrummer.com}}</ref> Dem settle at Anloga wey dem establish several small settlements around de shores of de Keta Lagoon. Sam of de towns dem show below plus demma 2010 populations. {| class="wikitable" !Name of Town !2010 Population figure |- |Keta |8,101 |- |Anloga |29,748 |- |Anyako |6,780 |- |Anlo Afiadenyigba |9,680 |- |Tegbi |10,056 |- |Kedzi |129 |- |Kodzi |185 |- |Asadame |1,410 |- |Woe |558 |- |Tregui |786 |- |Wuti |2,340 |- |Atiteti |978 |- |Dzato |879 |- |Yenui |667 |- |Alakple |529 |- |Srogboe |640 |- |Dzita |3531 |- |Blekusu |897 |- |Adina |758 |- |Anyanui |1,783 |- |Havedzi |897 |- |Vodza |769 |- |Dzelukope |10,409 |- |'''Total''' |'''92,510''' |} === Climate === De Köppen Climate Classification be "Aw". (Tropical Savanna Climate).<ref>[http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=57456&cityname=Ada%2C+Greater+Accra%2C+Ghana&units= Climate Summary for Ada Foah (closest city on record with accurate data for the Keta Municipal District)]</ref>{{Weather box|location=Keta Municipal District|single line=Yes|metric first=Yes|Jan high F=86|Feb high F=87|Mar high F=88|Apr high F=87|May high F=86|Jun high F=84|Jul high F=81|Aug high F=81|Sep high F=83|Oct high F=85|Nov high F=88|Dec high F=87|year high F=85|Jan low F=82|Feb low F=84|Mar low F=84|Apr low F=84|May low F=82|Jun low F=81|Jul low F=78|Aug low F=77|Sep low F=79|Oct low F=80|Nov low F=82|Dec low F=82|year low F=81|Jan precipitation days=0|Feb precipitation days=0|Mar precipitation days=2|Apr precipitation days=3|May precipitation days=4|Jun precipitation days=6|Jul precipitation days=3|Aug precipitation days=2|Sep precipitation days=5|Oct precipitation days=4|Nov precipitation days=1|Dec precipitation days=1|year precipitation days=31|source 1=Weatherbase <ref name=Weatherbase> {{cite web |url =http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=57456&cityname=Ada--United-States-of-America |title =Weatherbase.com |publisher=Weatherbase |year=2013 }} Retrieved on May 11, 2013. </ref>|date=May 2013}} == References == q72tf1sx35xl48p4j7n7uwz6vzrirzc 101858 101857 2026-06-11T20:02:20Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 101858 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Keta Lagoon''', dem sanso call '''Anlo-Keta lagoon''', be de largest for over 90 lagoons<ref name="oceandocs1">{{Cite web |date= |title=Management Issues for the Sustainable Use of Lagoon Fish Resources |url=http://www.oceandocs.net/bitstream/1834/699/1/ICLARM2427.pdf |access-date=2014-03-07}}</ref> wey cover 550&nbsp;km stretch for de coastline for Ghana. Dis lagoon be 126.13&nbsp;km for length. Edey locate insyd de eastern coast for Ghana wey e be separated from de [[Gulf of Guinea]]<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Gulf of Guinea (gulf, Atlantic Ocean) - Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248843/Gulf-of-Guinea |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> by a narrow strip of sandbar. Dis open salty water be surrounded by flood plains den mangrove swamps. Togeda dem form de Keta Lagoon Ramsar site<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clearing House mechanism of Ghana - Convention on Biological Diversity |url=http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal./ramsar-sites/keta-lagoon-complex |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140307234545/http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal./ramsar-sites/keta-lagoon-complex |archive-date=7 March 2014 |access-date=2 February 2022 |website=gh.chm-cbd.net}}</ref> wer cover 1200&nbsp;km² Seasonal inflow for sea water dey occur during high tide from de Gulf of Guinea den regular inflow of rivers. De rivers wich dey drain into de lagoon include de Aka, de Tordzi River den Belikpa stream<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Belikpa (stream) |url=http://gh.geoview.info/belikpa,2303213 |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Gh.geoview.info}}</ref> wer dem dey enter de lagoon from de north. De lagoon be surrounded by chaw settlements. De towns include Anloga, Woe, Keta den Kedzi to de south, Aborlove Nolopi, Anyako den Anlo Afiadenyigba to de north, Kodzi, Alakple den Tregui to de west den Denu den Adina to de east. Over de years population growth, extensive human activities den climate change all contribute to reduce de volume of water insyd de lagoon wich dey appear to be drying up. De lagoon cam be part of de daily existence for de people insyd [[Anlo Ewe|Anlo]] land. Insyd 1992 de Keta Lagoon be place on de list of Wetlands for International Importance by de Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, den in 1999 work dem begin on measures to limit more erosion den to control flooding of de coastal region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-12-07 |title=Keta (Ghana) - Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315645/Keta |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> [[File:Gbe_languages.png|right|thumb|Keta Lagoon dey insyd de south-western end of de region settled by de Ewe people]] Dis Lagoon got ein name den prominence from the settlement for [[Anlo Ewe|Anlo]]- Ewes <ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=African Culture - The Anlo-Ewe People |url=http://africaimports.com/anlo-ewe-people-group.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308044100/http://africaimports.com/anlo-ewe-people-group.asp |archive-date=2014-03-08 |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Africa Imports}}</ref> buh more especially for de town Keta den dey put for use. De inhabitants for de area surrounding de lagoon be de descendants for Anlo Ewe groups wey dey settle for Anlo land. Dema ancestors migrate from Notsie insyd central [[Togo]] insyd de mid –seventeenth century.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=African Drumming - dancedrummer.com - Anlo-Ewe History |url=http://www.dancedrummer.com/history.html |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=dancedrummer.com}}</ref> Dem settle at Anloga wey dem establish several small settlements around de shores of de Keta Lagoon. Sam of de towns dem show below plus demma 2010 populations. {| class="wikitable" !Name of Town !2010 Population figure |- |Keta |8,101 |- |Anloga |29,748 |- |Anyako |6,780 |- |Anlo Afiadenyigba |9,680 |- |Tegbi |10,056 |- |Kedzi |129 |- |Kodzi |185 |- |Asadame |1,410 |- |Woe |558 |- |Tregui |786 |- |Wuti |2,340 |- |Atiteti |978 |- |Dzato |879 |- |Yenui |667 |- |Alakple |529 |- |Srogboe |640 |- |Dzita |3531 |- |Blekusu |897 |- |Adina |758 |- |Anyanui |1,783 |- |Havedzi |897 |- |Vodza |769 |- |Dzelukope |10,409 |- |'''Total''' |'''92,510''' |} === Climate === De Köppen Climate Classification be "Aw". (Tropical Savanna Climate).<ref>[http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=57456&cityname=Ada%2C+Greater+Accra%2C+Ghana&units= Climate Summary for Ada Foah (closest city on record with accurate data for the Keta Municipal District)]</ref>{{Weather box|location=Keta Municipal District|single line=Yes|metric first=Yes|Jan high F=86|Feb high F=87|Mar high F=88|Apr high F=87|May high F=86|Jun high F=84|Jul high F=81|Aug high F=81|Sep high F=83|Oct high F=85|Nov high F=88|Dec high F=87|year high F=85|Jan low F=82|Feb low F=84|Mar low F=84|Apr low F=84|May low F=82|Jun low F=81|Jul low F=78|Aug low F=77|Sep low F=79|Oct low F=80|Nov low F=82|Dec low F=82|year low F=81|Jan precipitation days=0|Feb precipitation days=0|Mar precipitation days=2|Apr precipitation days=3|May precipitation days=4|Jun precipitation days=6|Jul precipitation days=3|Aug precipitation days=2|Sep precipitation days=5|Oct precipitation days=4|Nov precipitation days=1|Dec precipitation days=1|year precipitation days=31|source 1=Weatherbase <ref name=Weatherbase> {{cite web |url =http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=57456&cityname=Ada--United-States-of-America |title =Weatherbase.com |publisher=Weatherbase |year=2013 }} Retrieved on May 11, 2013. </ref>|date=May 2013}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Lagoons insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Ghana]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Ghana]] 2hebd9pfqiht52l3c5flylleic0vdeg 0 27277 101992 100629 2026-06-11T23:29:41Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 101992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} De '''Waseges River''', anaa '''Sandai River''', be a river insyd [[Kenya]]. Ein source be on de slopes of de Nyandarua Plateau below de Aberdare Range; e dey end ein course insyd Lake Bogoria. Insyd 2002 na dem find rubies insyd de region of de Waseges River.{{sfn|Ruby}} == Course == De river dey flow north, then west den south to enter Lake Bogoria insyd de Great Rift Valley from de north after e dey pass thru de Kesubo swamp.{{sfn|Hughes|Hughes|1992|p=189}}{{sfn|Owen|Renaut|Hover|Ashley|2004|p=65}} Insyd ein upper reaches, de Waseges dey flow thru regions of intensive coffee cultivation wer heavy use be made of chemical fertilizers den pesticides. Lower down e dey flow thru bush den scrub dem use for grazing, den then thru very dry bush before entering de lake at ein northern end.{{sfn|Lake Bogoria UNESCO}} De river be seasonal, wey e be de main affluent of de lake.{{sfn|Renaut|Owen|1991|p=177}}{{sfn|Owen|Renaut|Hover|Ashley|2004|p=65}} De inertial flow of de river fi generate counter-clockwise currents insyd de lake.{{sfn|Renaut|Owen|1991|p=183}} == Chemistry == Ein water pH be 8,{{sfn|Owen|Renaut|Hover|Ashley|2004|p=66}} a mild alkaline level. == Irrigation Scheme == De Waseges be an important source of irrigation water. Plus rising populations, by 1985 na de Tugen people of Sandai sam times dey refuse to allow dema neighbors, de Camus people, to use water from de river.{{sfn|Little|1992|p=137}} Na de Sandai farmers dey insyd de habit of cultivating two anaa three out of six cultivated areas each year. A given area go be farmed for three anaa four years, then dem lef fallow for up to four years. All de areas be fed by canals from de Waseges, buh half de canals go be blocked at any time. Use of de irrigated farm areas involve agreements between de Tugen den Camus people.{{sfn|Little|1992|p=167-168}} An irrigation scheme dem carry out by de [[Baringo District]] Provincial Irrigation Unit (PIU), fund wey dem give technical support by Dutch Aid, aim to improve de usage of de river waters. Na de planned irrigation scheme be based on a single large concrete-lined canal feeding just one area. Dem schedule for launch insyd 1983, na der be delays secof protests from de local people, wey na dem no plete de project til de 1987/1988 season. De project introduce a less flexible system, create tensions between de Tugen den Camus people, den tensions among de Tugen.{{sfn|Little|1992|p=167-168}} Before 2003 na de river be illegally diverted for irrigation upstream insyd de [[Subukia]] area, wey dey cause am to dry up downstream during a period of drought. Insyd 2003 de Ministry of Water Management and Development propose to establish river basin catchment committees den water user associations to manage de use of de river.{{sfn|Karua|2003|p=1335}} == References == <references /> == Sources == 23x0zraajr8imu4c38mo85pxpk8evok 101997 101992 2026-06-11T23:32:25Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 101997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} De '''Waseges River''', anaa '''Sandai River''', be a river insyd [[Kenya]]. Ein source be on de slopes of de Nyandarua Plateau below de Aberdare Range; e dey end ein course insyd Lake Bogoria. Insyd 2002 na dem find rubies insyd de region of de Waseges River.{{sfn|Ruby}} == Course == De river dey flow north, then west den south to enter Lake Bogoria insyd de Great Rift Valley from de north after e dey pass thru de Kesubo swamp.{{sfn|Hughes|Hughes|1992|p=189}}{{sfn|Owen|Renaut|Hover|Ashley|2004|p=65}} Insyd ein upper reaches, de Waseges dey flow thru regions of intensive coffee cultivation wer heavy use be made of chemical fertilizers den pesticides. Lower down e dey flow thru bush den scrub dem use for grazing, den then thru very dry bush before entering de lake at ein northern end.{{sfn|Lake Bogoria UNESCO}} De river be seasonal, wey e be de main affluent of de lake.{{sfn|Renaut|Owen|1991|p=177}}{{sfn|Owen|Renaut|Hover|Ashley|2004|p=65}} De inertial flow of de river fi generate counter-clockwise currents insyd de lake.{{sfn|Renaut|Owen|1991|p=183}} == Chemistry == Ein water pH be 8,{{sfn|Owen|Renaut|Hover|Ashley|2004|p=66}} a mild alkaline level. == Irrigation Scheme == De Waseges be an important source of irrigation water. Plus rising populations, by 1985 na de Tugen people of Sandai sam times dey refuse to allow dema neighbors, de Camus people, to use water from de river.{{sfn|Little|1992|p=137}} Na de Sandai farmers dey insyd de habit of cultivating two anaa three out of six cultivated areas each year. A given area go be farmed for three anaa four years, then dem lef fallow for up to four years. All de areas be fed by canals from de Waseges, buh half de canals go be blocked at any time. Use of de irrigated farm areas involve agreements between de Tugen den Camus people.{{sfn|Little|1992|p=167-168}} An irrigation scheme dem carry out by de Baringo District Provincial Irrigation Unit (PIU), fund wey dem give technical support by Dutch Aid, aim to improve de usage of de river waters. Na de planned irrigation scheme be based on a single large concrete-lined canal feeding just one area. Dem schedule for launch insyd 1983, na der be delays secof protests from de local people, wey na dem no plete de project til de 1987/1988 season. De project introduce a less flexible system, create tensions between de Tugen den Camus people, den tensions among de Tugen.{{sfn|Little|1992|p=167-168}} Before 2003 na de river be illegally diverted for irrigation upstream insyd de Subukia area, wey dey cause am to dry up downstream during a period of drought. Insyd 2003 de Ministry of Water Management and Development propose to establish river basin catchment committees den water user associations to manage de use of de river.{{sfn|Karua|2003|p=1335}} == References == <references /> == Sources == *{{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=R. H. |last2=Hughes |first2=J. S. |year=1992 |title=A directory of African wetlands |publisher=IUCN |isbn=2-88032-949-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA189}} *{{cite book |last=Karua |date=June 17, 2003 |chapter=Diversion of River Waseges |title=Parliamentary Debates |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYC5kkDKIT8C&pg=PT3}} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Lake Bogoria UNESCO}} |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1346/ |title=Lake Bogoria National Reserve |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2012-01-01}} *{{cite book |last=Little |first=Peter D. |year=1992 |title=The elusive granary: herder, farmer, and state in northern Kenya |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-40552-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lik9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA137}} * {{cite book |last1= Renaut |first1= Robin W. |last2= Owen |first2= R. Bernhart |year= 1991 |chapter= Lake Bogoria |editor-last1= Anadón |editor-first1= P. |editor-last2= Cabrera |editor-first2= Ll |editor-last3= Kelts |editor-first3= K. R. |title= Lacustrine facies analysis |publisher= John Wiley & Sons |pages= 175–194 |isbn= 0-632-03149-2 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-r5Kstd_l8MC&pg=PA177 }} * {{cite journal |last1= Owen |first1= R. Bernhart |last2= Renaut |first2= Robin W. |last3= Hover |first3= V.C. |last4= Ashley |first4= G.M. |last5= Muasya |first5= M. |date= January 2004 |title= Swamps, springs and diatoms: Wetlands of the semi-arid Bogoria-Baringo Rift, Kenya |journal= Hydrobiologia |volume= 518 |issue= 1 |pages= 59–78 |doi= 10.1023/B:HYDR.0000025057.62967.2c |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226218858 |access-date= 2024-07-06 }} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Ruby}} |title=An overview of ruby |publisher=RMC Gems |url= https://shoprmcgems.com/blogs/news/an-overview-of-ruby |access-date=2012-01-01}} [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] hxe79cal7rq7g5ggndy7meah7tyh9o9 0 27280 102016 100552 2026-06-12T00:02:28Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102016 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Bahr el Zeraf''' (Arabic: بَـحْـر الـزّرَاف, <small>romanized:</small> ''Baḥr ez-Zerāf'', dem sanso know as de '''Giraffe''' anaa '''Phow River''' insyd de English language,<ref name="Pease1909">{{cite book |last=Pease |first=A. E. |author-link=Alfred Edward Pease |title=The Book of the Lion |publisher=Ravenio Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XHyIDQAAQBAJ&q=Zeraf |date=1909-10-16}}</ref> be an arm of de [[White Nile]] insyd de [[Sudd]] region of [[South Sudan]]. E be completely contained within de South Sudanese state of Jonglei. Ein name be Arabic for "Giraffe River".<ref>{{cite book|last=Baedeker|first=Karl|title=Egypt and the Sûdân|url=https://archive.org/details/egyptsdnhand00karl|year=1914|page=[https://archive.org/details/egyptsdnhand00karl/page/435 435]}}</ref> == Course == De Bahr el Zeraf dey form insyd de southern Sudd wetlands as an arm of de Bahr al Jabal ("Mountain Nile") section of de White Nile. A pair of man-made canals dem know as de Zeraf Cuts na dem dig insyd 1910 den 1913<ref name=Newhouse>{{Cite book | publisher = Sir I. Pitnam & sons, ltd | last = Newhouse | first = Frederic| title = The training of the upper Nile }}</ref> to connect the two rivers at {{coord|7.768|N|30.567|E}}.<ref name=Hughes>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=R. H.|title=A directory of African wetlands|year=1992|publisher=IUCN [u.a.]|location=Glan [u.a.]|isbn=2880329493|url=http://ramsar.wetlands.org/ToolsforParties/WetlandDirectories/ADirectoryofAfricaWetlands/tabid/824/Default.aspx|edition=[Pbk. ed.].|author2=Hughes, J. S.}}</ref> Dese canals dey divert sam of de Jabal ein flow, more dan doubling de Zeraf ein volume, plus de intention of accelerating de flow to Egypt den thereby reducing de water "lost" to evaporation den transpiration insyd de swamps.<ref name=Newhouse/> From de Cuts de Zeraf dey flow north thru de Ez Zeraf Game Reserve for {{convert|280|km|mi}}. About {{convert|100|km|mi}} of dis distance be thru continuous swamp plus islands, wey dey transition further downstream to a well-defined channel plus raised banks.<ref name=Newhouse/> De Zeraf dey rejoin de White Nile near New Fangak, {{convert|80|km|mi}} downriver from Lake No den {{convert|56|km|mi}} upriver from Malakal.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9011787 | title= Bahr az-Zaraf | accessdate= 2008-01-22 | encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> == References == kunbq4a4m37ze2poo1aortcki7tcwmg 102017 102016 2026-06-12T00:03:34Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102017 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Bahr el Zeraf''' (Arabic: بَـحْـر الـزّرَاف, <small>romanized:</small> ''Baḥr ez-Zerāf'', dem sanso know as de '''Giraffe''' anaa '''Phow River''' insyd de English language,<ref name="Pease1909">{{cite book |last=Pease |first=A. E. |author-link=Alfred Edward Pease |title=The Book of the Lion |publisher=Ravenio Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XHyIDQAAQBAJ&q=Zeraf |date=1909-10-16}}</ref> be an arm of de [[White Nile]] insyd de [[Sudd]] region of [[South Sudan]]. E be completely contained within de South Sudanese state of Jonglei. Ein name be Arabic for "Giraffe River".<ref>{{cite book|last=Baedeker|first=Karl|title=Egypt and the Sûdân|url=https://archive.org/details/egyptsdnhand00karl|year=1914|page=[https://archive.org/details/egyptsdnhand00karl/page/435 435]}}</ref> == Course == De Bahr el Zeraf dey form insyd de southern Sudd wetlands as an arm of de Bahr al Jabal ("Mountain Nile") section of de White Nile. A pair of man-made canals dem know as de Zeraf Cuts na dem dig insyd 1910 den 1913<ref name=Newhouse>{{Cite book | publisher = Sir I. Pitnam & sons, ltd | last = Newhouse | first = Frederic| title = The training of the upper Nile }}</ref> to connect the two rivers at {{coord|7.768|N|30.567|E}}.<ref name=Hughes>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=R. H.|title=A directory of African wetlands|year=1992|publisher=IUCN [u.a.]|location=Glan [u.a.]|isbn=2880329493|url=http://ramsar.wetlands.org/ToolsforParties/WetlandDirectories/ADirectoryofAfricaWetlands/tabid/824/Default.aspx|edition=[Pbk. ed.].|author2=Hughes, J. S.}}</ref> Dese canals dey divert sam of de Jabal ein flow, more dan doubling de Zeraf ein volume, plus de intention of accelerating de flow to Egypt den thereby reducing de water "lost" to evaporation den transpiration insyd de swamps.<ref name=Newhouse/> From de Cuts de Zeraf dey flow north thru de Ez Zeraf Game Reserve for {{convert|280|km|mi}}. About {{convert|100|km|mi}} of dis distance be thru continuous swamp plus islands, wey dey transition further downstream to a well-defined channel plus raised banks.<ref name=Newhouse/> De Zeraf dey rejoin de White Nile near New Fangak, {{convert|80|km|mi}} downriver from Lake No den {{convert|56|km|mi}} upriver from Malakal.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9011787 | title= Bahr az-Zaraf | accessdate= 2008-01-22 | encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== *[http://www.getty.edu/vow/TGNFullDisplay?find=Zaraf&place=&nation=&prev_page=1&english=Y&subjectid=1132150 Bahr el Zeraf (river)], Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names *[http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/ Baḩr az Zarāf], GEOnet Names Server [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Nile basin]] [[Category:Jonglei State]] [[Category:Greater Upper Nile]] ts2w3yc4r50bi34zzwwnsxd8geegrpl 0 27415 101830 101334 2026-06-11T17:30:19Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 101830 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Infobox river | name = Sobat River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = Sobat.jpg | image_size = | image_caption = Sobat River from air | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = State | subdivision_name2 = [[Upper Nile (state)]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length_km = 354 | length_ref = <ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9068426 | title= Sobat River | access-date= 2008-01-21 | encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica}} {{registration required}}</ref> | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= Hillet Doleib | discharge1_min = {{convert|99|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_avg = {{convert|412|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_max = {{convert|680|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = [[Baro River]] | source1_location = Dibdib, [[Ethiopia]] | source1_coordinates= {{Coord|7.701|35.879|format=dms|display=i}} | source1_elevation = {{Convert|2367|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source2 = [[Pibor River]] | source2_location = Pibor Post, [[Greater Pibor Administrative Area|Greater Pibor]] | source2_coordinates= {{coord|6.7951|33.1519|format=dms|region:SD-20|}} | source2_elevation = {{convert|418|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source_confluence = | source_confluence_location= [[Jikmir, South Sudan]] | source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|8|26|10|N|33|13|7|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline}} | source_confluence_elevation= {{Convert|404|m|ft|abbr=on}} | mouth = [[White Nile]] | mouth_location = Againg, Upper Nile | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|9|22|2|N|31|32|57|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline,title}} | mouth_elevation = {{Convert|398|m|ft|abbr=on}} | progression = [[White Nile]] → [[Nile]] → [[Mediterranean Sea]] | river_system = [[Nile]] | basin_size_km2 = 225000 | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = |discharge2_location=[[mouth]]|discharge2_avg={{convert|437|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}}}} [[File:Sobat OSM.png|thumb|right|Sobat River basin]] De '''Sobat River''' be a river of de Greater Upper Nile region insyd northeastern [[South Sudan]], [[Africa]]. E be de most southerly of de great eastern tributaries of de [[White Nile]], before de confluence plus de [[Blue Nile]]. ==Geography== De Sobat River be formed by de confluence of de west-flowing Baro River den de north-flowing Pibot River, on de border plus [[Ethiopia]]. De river enters de [[White Nile]] at Doleib Hill, near de city of Malakal insyd Upper Nile State. Wen insyd flood de Sobat River produces an enormous discharge carrying a white sediment, wich gives de White Nile its name.<ref name="brit" /> ===Hydrology=== De Sobat den its tributaries drain a watershed approximately {{convert|225000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} insyd size. De river's mean annual discharge be {{cvt|412|m3/s}}.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shahin |first= Mamdouh |title= Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa |year= 2002 |publisher= Springer |isbn= 1-4020-0866-X |pages= 276, 288}}; online at [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmdYFTlcSgEC Google Books]</ref> ==See sanso== *List of rivers of South Sudan == References == <references /> [[Category:Sobat River]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:AWC2026]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] sa2uz1ih7wtrnb7y96cn8mgemk46pae 101831 101830 2026-06-11T17:31:39Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 101831 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Infobox river | name = Sobat River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = Sobat.jpg | image_size = | image_caption = Sobat River from air | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = State | subdivision_name2 = [[Upper Nile (state)]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length_km = 354 | length_ref = <ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9068426 | title= Sobat River | access-date= 2008-01-21 | encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica}} {{registration required}}</ref> | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= Hillet Doleib | discharge1_min = {{convert|99|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_avg = {{convert|412|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_max = {{convert|680|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = [[Baro River]] | source1_location = Dibdib, [[Ethiopia]] | source1_coordinates= {{Coord|7.701|35.879|format=dms|display=i}} | source1_elevation = {{Convert|2367|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source2 = [[Pibor River]] | source2_location = Pibor Post, [[Greater Pibor Administrative Area|Greater Pibor]] | source2_coordinates= {{coord|6.7951|33.1519|format=dms|region:SD-20|}} | source2_elevation = {{convert|418|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source_confluence = | source_confluence_location= [[Jikmir, South Sudan]] | source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|8|26|10|N|33|13|7|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline}} | source_confluence_elevation= {{Convert|404|m|ft|abbr=on}} | mouth = [[White Nile]] | mouth_location = Againg, Upper Nile | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|9|22|2|N|31|32|57|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline,title}} | mouth_elevation = {{Convert|398|m|ft|abbr=on}} | progression = [[White Nile]] → [[Nile]] → [[Mediterranean Sea]] | river_system = [[Nile]] | basin_size_km2 = 225000 | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = |discharge2_location=[[mouth]]|discharge2_avg={{convert|437|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}}}} [[File:Sobat OSM.png|thumb|right|Sobat River basin]] De '''Sobat River''' be a river of de Greater Upper Nile region insyd northeastern [[South Sudan]], [[Africa]]. E be de most southerly of de great eastern tributaries of de [[White Nile]], before de confluence plus de [[Blue Nile]]. ==Geography== De Sobat River be formed by de confluence of de west-flowing Baro River den de north-flowing Pibot River, on de border plus [[Ethiopia]]. De river enters de [[White Nile]] at Doleib Hill, near de city of Malakal insyd Upper Nile State. Wen insyd flood de Sobat River produces an enormous discharge carrying a white sediment, wich gives de White Nile its name.<ref name="brit" /> ===Hydrology=== De Sobat den its tributaries drain a watershed approximately {{convert|225000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} insyd size. De river's mean annual discharge be {{cvt|412|m3/s}}.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shahin |first= Mamdouh |title= Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa |year= 2002 |publisher= Springer |isbn= 1-4020-0866-X |pages= 276, 288}}; online at [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmdYFTlcSgEC Google Books]</ref> ==See sanso== *List of rivers of South Sudan == References == <references /> [[Category:Sobat River]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:AWC2026]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] [[Category:Greater Upper Nile]] cdz80owyx8xjmv7tnvkjol0ryexfwyd 101832 101831 2026-06-11T17:32:22Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 101832 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Infobox river | name = Sobat River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = Sobat.jpg | image_size = | image_caption = Sobat River from air | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = State | subdivision_name2 = [[Upper Nile (state)]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length_km = 354 | length_ref = <ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9068426 | title= Sobat River | access-date= 2008-01-21 | encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica}} {{registration required}}</ref> | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= Hillet Doleib | discharge1_min = {{convert|99|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_avg = {{convert|412|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_max = {{convert|680|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = [[Baro River]] | source1_location = Dibdib, [[Ethiopia]] | source1_coordinates= {{Coord|7.701|35.879|format=dms|display=i}} | source1_elevation = {{Convert|2367|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source2 = [[Pibor River]] | source2_location = Pibor Post, [[Greater Pibor Administrative Area|Greater Pibor]] | source2_coordinates= {{coord|6.7951|33.1519|format=dms|region:SD-20|}} | source2_elevation = {{convert|418|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source_confluence = | source_confluence_location= [[Jikmir, South Sudan]] | source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|8|26|10|N|33|13|7|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline}} | source_confluence_elevation= {{Convert|404|m|ft|abbr=on}} | mouth = [[White Nile]] | mouth_location = Againg, Upper Nile | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|9|22|2|N|31|32|57|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline,title}} | mouth_elevation = {{Convert|398|m|ft|abbr=on}} | progression = [[White Nile]] → [[Nile]] → [[Mediterranean Sea]] | river_system = [[Nile]] | basin_size_km2 = 225000 | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = |discharge2_location=[[mouth]]|discharge2_avg={{convert|437|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}}}} [[File:Sobat OSM.png|thumb|right|Sobat River basin]] De '''Sobat River''' be a river of de Greater Upper Nile region insyd northeastern [[South Sudan]], [[Africa]]. E be de most southerly of de great eastern tributaries of de [[White Nile]], before de confluence plus de [[Blue Nile]]. ==Geography== De Sobat River be formed by de confluence of de west-flowing Baro River den de north-flowing Pibot River, on de border plus [[Ethiopia]]. De river enters de [[White Nile]] at Doleib Hill, near de city of Malakal insyd Upper Nile State. Wen insyd flood de Sobat River produces an enormous discharge carrying a white sediment, wich gives de White Nile its name.<ref name="brit" /> ===Hydrology=== De Sobat den its tributaries drain a watershed approximately {{convert|225000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} insyd size. De river's mean annual discharge be {{cvt|412|m3/s}}.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shahin |first= Mamdouh |title= Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa |year= 2002 |publisher= Springer |isbn= 1-4020-0866-X |pages= 276, 288}}; online at [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmdYFTlcSgEC Google Books]</ref> ==See sanso== *List of rivers of South Sudan == References == <references /> [[Category:Sobat River]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:AWC2026]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] [[Category:Greater Upper Nile]] [[Category:Nile basin]] 0b0isurafc2qrp1krtppe5m4abk7khd 101833 101832 2026-06-11T17:33:03Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 101833 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Infobox river | name = Sobat River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = Sobat.jpg | image_size = | image_caption = Sobat River from air | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = State | subdivision_name2 = [[Upper Nile (state)]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length_km = 354 | length_ref = <ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9068426 | title= Sobat River | access-date= 2008-01-21 | encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica}} {{registration required}}</ref> | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= Hillet Doleib | discharge1_min = {{convert|99|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_avg = {{convert|412|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_max = {{convert|680|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = [[Baro River]] | source1_location = Dibdib, [[Ethiopia]] | source1_coordinates= {{Coord|7.701|35.879|format=dms|display=i}} | source1_elevation = {{Convert|2367|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source2 = [[Pibor River]] | source2_location = Pibor Post, [[Greater Pibor Administrative Area|Greater Pibor]] | source2_coordinates= {{coord|6.7951|33.1519|format=dms|region:SD-20|}} | source2_elevation = {{convert|418|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source_confluence = | source_confluence_location= [[Jikmir, South Sudan]] | source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|8|26|10|N|33|13|7|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline}} | source_confluence_elevation= {{Convert|404|m|ft|abbr=on}} | mouth = [[White Nile]] | mouth_location = Againg, Upper Nile | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|9|22|2|N|31|32|57|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline,title}} | mouth_elevation = {{Convert|398|m|ft|abbr=on}} | progression = [[White Nile]] → [[Nile]] → [[Mediterranean Sea]] | river_system = [[Nile]] | basin_size_km2 = 225000 | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = |discharge2_location=[[mouth]]|discharge2_avg={{convert|437|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}}}} [[File:Sobat OSM.png|thumb|right|Sobat River basin]] De '''Sobat River''' be a river of de Greater Upper Nile region insyd northeastern [[South Sudan]], [[Africa]]. E be de most southerly of de great eastern tributaries of de [[White Nile]], before de confluence plus de [[Blue Nile]]. ==Geography== De Sobat River be formed by de confluence of de west-flowing Baro River den de north-flowing Pibot River, on de border plus [[Ethiopia]]. De river enters de [[White Nile]] at Doleib Hill, near de city of Malakal insyd Upper Nile State. Wen insyd flood de Sobat River produces an enormous discharge carrying a white sediment, wich gives de White Nile its name.<ref name="brit" /> ===Hydrology=== De Sobat den its tributaries drain a watershed approximately {{convert|225000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} insyd size. De river's mean annual discharge be {{cvt|412|m3/s}}.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shahin |first= Mamdouh |title= Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa |year= 2002 |publisher= Springer |isbn= 1-4020-0866-X |pages= 276, 288}}; online at [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmdYFTlcSgEC Google Books]</ref> ==See sanso== *List of rivers of South Sudan == References == <references /> [[Category:Sobat River]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:AWC2026]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] [[Category:Greater Upper Nile]] [[Category:Nile basin]] [[Category:Africa River stubs]] 330k8zkttjo8dnzkktif3lsnbu3ak37 101834 101833 2026-06-11T17:33:53Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 101834 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Infobox river | name = Sobat River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = Sobat.jpg | image_size = | image_caption = Sobat River from air | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = State | subdivision_name2 = [[Upper Nile (state)]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length_km = 354 | length_ref = <ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9068426 | title= Sobat River | access-date= 2008-01-21 | encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica}} {{registration required}}</ref> | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= Hillet Doleib | discharge1_min = {{convert|99|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_avg = {{convert|412|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} | discharge1_max = {{convert|680|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}} <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = [[Baro River]] | source1_location = Dibdib, [[Ethiopia]] | source1_coordinates= {{Coord|7.701|35.879|format=dms|display=i}} | source1_elevation = {{Convert|2367|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source2 = [[Pibor River]] | source2_location = Pibor Post, [[Greater Pibor Administrative Area|Greater Pibor]] | source2_coordinates= {{coord|6.7951|33.1519|format=dms|region:SD-20|}} | source2_elevation = {{convert|418|m|ft|abbr=on}} | source_confluence = | source_confluence_location= [[Jikmir, South Sudan]] | source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|8|26|10|N|33|13|7|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline}} | source_confluence_elevation= {{Convert|404|m|ft|abbr=on}} | mouth = [[White Nile]] | mouth_location = Againg, Upper Nile | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|9|22|2|N|31|32|57|E|type:river_region:SS|display=inline,title}} | mouth_elevation = {{Convert|398|m|ft|abbr=on}} | progression = [[White Nile]] → [[Nile]] → [[Mediterranean Sea]] | river_system = [[Nile]] | basin_size_km2 = 225000 | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = |discharge2_location=[[mouth]]|discharge2_avg={{convert|437|m3/s|ft3/s|abbr=on}}}} [[File:Sobat OSM.png|thumb|right|Sobat River basin]] De '''Sobat River''' be a river of de Greater Upper Nile region insyd northeastern [[South Sudan]], [[Africa]]. E be de most southerly of de great eastern tributaries of de [[White Nile]], before de confluence plus de [[Blue Nile]]. ==Geography== De Sobat River be formed by de confluence of de west-flowing Baro River den de north-flowing Pibot River, on de border plus [[Ethiopia]]. De river enters de [[White Nile]] at Doleib Hill, near de city of Malakal insyd Upper Nile State. Wen insyd flood de Sobat River produces an enormous discharge carrying a white sediment, wich gives de White Nile its name.<ref name="brit" /> ===Hydrology=== De Sobat den its tributaries drain a watershed approximately {{convert|225000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} insyd size. De river's mean annual discharge be {{cvt|412|m3/s}}.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shahin |first= Mamdouh |title= Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa |year= 2002 |publisher= Springer |isbn= 1-4020-0866-X |pages= 276, 288}}; online at [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmdYFTlcSgEC Google Books]</ref> ==See sanso== *List of rivers of South Sudan == References == <references /> [[Category:Sobat River]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:AWC2026]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] [[Category:Greater Upper Nile]] [[Category:Nile basin]] [[Category:Africa River stubs]] [[Category:South Sudan geography stubs]] rrb2kd6ng4meidqseiq7kpwzlxtyb2d 0 27437 101764 101759 2026-06-11T12:30:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region. == References == 0zsy8ou27mz5tyuwv5k01tvm8xnd2yq 101765 101764 2026-06-11T12:32:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == References == qkfoir96zk8rcixaw4i3ui91a53w33x 101766 101765 2026-06-11T12:33:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101766 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. == References == 1vd9bgmdzkufyddddep3655wnlxx1hu 101767 101766 2026-06-11T12:35:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions. == References == pqjjxowh0fgqhscosdyuff6djvb9kue 101768 101767 2026-06-11T12:35:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == References == ojv1gfv7mpz13te5h1yrjbjtxygj8d9 101769 101768 2026-06-11T12:36:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. == References == nirlksw16hylcrb77s0dey0cttzpnl7 101770 101769 2026-06-11T12:36:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd. == References == jzuurolb4qvs08340er35iyek79uyvw 101771 101770 2026-06-11T12:37:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == References == 4mbxw0ysfoavfssr5vj7a2hpplq0ijn 101772 101771 2026-06-11T12:37:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. == References == dpki5dq7do1nkuz4wdxllzerxkmxkoh 101773 101772 2026-06-11T12:38:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually. == References == mzb0kgva2syc4uove2cfr0ichn8v0pq 101774 101773 2026-06-11T12:38:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == References == 8ejbqtznnwzw54w7npcnylmw81wd811 101775 101774 2026-06-11T12:39:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == == References == rw05t32x1bqp9uryomn79v9ymhsyh6l 101776 101775 2026-06-11T12:40:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101776 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control dey bund give flood recession wey dey crop for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]] == References == 8u7o2xy0yfd6q9mxbkzb8qcvoffu6ry 101777 101776 2026-06-11T13:08:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. == References == 420lv7lncpg06gaej88d1ztlbw7wu18 101778 101777 2026-06-11T13:09:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. == References == r23huug6a5i0b5b96l1j5l0ihupmufc 101779 101778 2026-06-11T13:10:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. == References == 2fnudub7jbv3820robkjzefy5u9pi10 101780 101779 2026-06-11T13:11:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. == References == 8w2a8nxt0jkumtmgokkk72amtnqlm5z 101781 101780 2026-06-11T13:11:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. == References == 8cv0g5zsuzh41qaxqyz2x5yzth722os 101782 101781 2026-06-11T13:12:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101782 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. == References == d286s9rzpeaekx29utpeoweraaof7y4 101783 101782 2026-06-11T13:13:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem storer dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start. == References == 0ko66kqu2yrg9yc66c7ocomwjtidfif 101784 101783 2026-06-11T13:13:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == References == 7zatvt8uvsm16hdgvuzkg5iofk3afuf 101785 101784 2026-06-11T13:31:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. == References == nujqh3104lg4xytta3mzwrjbnmxdg6r 101786 101785 2026-06-11T13:31:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd. == References == 0b3j8vmgi1bheo0dgbamzylw4bh1wmh 101787 101786 2026-06-11T13:32:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> == References == 0wck4gqc9krfrfjkpgr270svhlxzys5 101788 101787 2026-06-11T13:33:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101788 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water. == References == qirevo6r8yfoas576uojd8efqy3jm18 101789 101788 2026-06-11T13:33:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == msfl8fqspt53cf2hysivf6nibnw2eyg 101790 101789 2026-06-11T13:34:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == ex6ndp5k9e13pymnt2haaiu5ofg90ug 101791 101790 2026-06-11T13:35:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> == References == g4abitzu24efpf6142jjl0j1qq9j63a 101792 101791 2026-06-11T13:35:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan." == References == rtk0b5jfoembeuu2az42nxnwa6ry7kz 101793 101792 2026-06-11T13:36:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101793 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref> == References == 77s10y44rwksvjv972cclb6pes9jkh7 101794 101793 2026-06-11T13:37:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101794 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> == References == 51dgxbgs3np11pmerxmp2khifvwrr8l 101795 101794 2026-06-11T13:38:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101795 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. == References == euuokxel4kt2ko5mah145shwbqxcv6l 101796 101795 2026-06-11T13:39:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101796 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. == References == nwpbprwf8vcuiu3fjw388ug0aq4xqhm 101797 101796 2026-06-11T13:40:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101797 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd. == References == ho1gkeefud5wdx7zqq4wc6whf93cjdq 101798 101797 2026-06-11T13:41:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref> == References == 5c9ik8oy21xtxlyafhxkxelvv4plhz7 101799 101798 2026-06-11T13:41:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101799 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> == References == ntnb4lc26paod43hnkjrg2snxpdqych 101800 101799 2026-06-11T13:42:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101800 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. == References == sy2tnptxne4tvhkt3809a9als3vlzpx 101801 101800 2026-06-11T13:42:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101801 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. == References == abf9gsfl06wtahoqxvtj4pka7ap6vnj 101802 101801 2026-06-11T13:43:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming. == References == hpcz2ttcfo6z6c6miu2w1qz0ovw24bu 101803 101802 2026-06-11T13:44:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101803 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> == References == p03e33rfijb5xuk49ormez7fmoe9qq5 101804 101803 2026-06-11T13:45:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd. == References == 4arocipxgd37qu6tznmcoy6a502anta 101805 101804 2026-06-11T13:45:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> == References == q6ahahudhei1ce76y494snh9dc465ro 101806 101805 2026-06-11T13:45:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == == References == pyg01rpt7y8r2mxrwqrd6xlk175sn53 101807 101806 2026-06-11T13:46:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work. == Make you sanso see == == References == acc1m3kyimrkf32p7cpurtqqwhyr9es 101808 101807 2026-06-11T13:47:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == == References == mtkse0yzn9me8cmz45dkkc0mg89d9fd 101809 101808 2026-06-11T13:47:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == == References == 4ifmsuipdjhyfi6gv9kv6kahiekqkfd 101810 101809 2026-06-11T13:48:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == iuvpl3cve23mz9c37u3n1d982p62t03 101811 101810 2026-06-11T13:48:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101811 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == 512doyfj02xea9d1y4239o2heiwd66z 101812 101811 2026-06-11T13:49:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101812 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} t5e4kccb3n9u1ia40iagojhkl385xg1 101813 101812 2026-06-11T13:58:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101813 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} lv8oepskpvnrti633qixp9vl91r134y 101814 101813 2026-06-11T14:01:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101814 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} mmt0nq2dtuex56jd9l7zew3aj9v6iqn 101815 101814 2026-06-11T14:02:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} qfqyiu3uc3aqppvzxvcgssnzb6zmdm2 101816 101815 2026-06-11T14:02:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101816 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] ez892tf0mfrutrfgv9xyrnahc33owzr 101817 101816 2026-06-11T14:03:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information for Okavango Delta planning is the weblog of the Library of the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] ltjawnxrh1zjqrylfgul0e9yfjew6kf 101818 101817 2026-06-11T14:04:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] fxfciw9ee6g9h0s4r2hilfsnzzxgas9 101819 101818 2026-06-11T14:05:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101819 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] 671rwzvvzwnz9vxolyv82by4o7d3k8s 101820 101819 2026-06-11T14:05:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101820 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] 2lcre9scwcfwzdlr5gmntmdfe4mp6qr 101821 101820 2026-06-11T14:06:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101821 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] j7uiww16czw8hfcywsh5qs47cih0gts 101822 101821 2026-06-11T14:06:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] fifyge1bfqf14hmaa7m81nwioxbe00y 101823 101822 2026-06-11T14:07:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101823 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] * [http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping in the molapos of the Okavango Delta] fae1qk2a65ajyf35ddg2yznsjc99q9k 101824 101823 2026-06-11T14:08:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101824 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] * [http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping for de molapos of de Okavango Delta insyd] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401231635/http://www.orc.ub.bw/ Okavango Research Institute] 72md46wi9vh8iam5s7a2dby413y308d 101825 101824 2026-06-11T14:08:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101825 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] * [http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping for de molapos of de Okavango Delta insyd] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401231635/http://www.orc.ub.bw/ Okavango Research Institute] * [http://168.167.30.198/ori/ Current Okavango water levels, weather data and satellite images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/|date=7 August 2012}} ieibsaicudfu44is1hiylqx45w4wu6s 101826 101825 2026-06-11T14:09:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] * [http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping for de molapos of de Okavango Delta insyd] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401231635/http://www.orc.ub.bw/ Okavango Research Institute] * [http://168.167.30.198/ori/ Current Okavango water levels, weather data and satellite images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/|date=7 August 2012}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_J-ODVl9Omg/ 1986 Documentary The End of Eden by Rick Lomba] 1ocf7jns3rudv63kjitrejvpop9uk6b 101827 101826 2026-06-11T14:09:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101827 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] * [http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping for de molapos of de Okavango Delta insyd] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401231635/http://www.orc.ub.bw/ Okavango Research Institute] * [http://168.167.30.198/ori/ Current Okavango water levels, weather data and satellite images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/|date=7 August 2012}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_J-ODVl9Omg/ 1986 Documentary The End of Eden by Rick Lomba] * [http://www.southern-african-game-reserves.co.za/botswana/okavango-delta/index.html Southern African Game Reserves - Okavango Delta] ddpbp9yt1w63slc0psphauk9jzlimva 0 27465 101836 101760 2026-06-11T17:52:59Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 8 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 101836 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Removal of salts from water}} {{Use mdy dates|date=February 2026}} [[File:Reverse osmosis desalination plant.JPG|thumb|312x312px|A reverse osmosis desalination plant in Barcelona, Spain]] '''Desalination''' na the artificial process wey dem dey use turn salt water (mostly [[sea water]]) into [[fresh water]]. More generally, desalination mean say dem dey remove salts and minerals from one substance.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/desalination "Desalination"] (definition), ''The American Heritage Science Dictionary'', via dictionary.com. Retrieved August 19, 2007.</ref> E fit be say dem go desalinate saltwater, especially sea water, make dem produce water for human drinking or irrigation, while e go also produce [[brine]] as by-product.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Panagopoulos|first1=Argyris|last2=Haralambous|first2=Katherine-Joanne|last3=Loizidou|first3=Maria|date=November 25, 2019|title=Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies – A review|journal=The Science of the Total Environment|volume=693|article-number=133545|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351|issn=1879-1026|pmid=31374511|bibcode=2019ScTEn.69333545P|s2cid=199387639}}</ref> Interest for desalination mostly dey focus on how to provide fresh water wey go cheap for human use. Together with recycled [[wastewater]], e be one of the few [[water resources]] wey no depend on rain.<ref name="Fischetti2007">{{Cite journal |last=Fischetti |first=Mark |date=September 2007 |title=Fresh from the Sea |journal=Scientific American|volume=297 |pmid=17784633 |issue=3 |pages=118–119|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0907-118 |bibcode=2007SciAm.297c.118F}}</ref> As pressure for freshwater dey increase globally, desalination don turn key part of strategies for global water security. According to 2019 review for ''Science of the Total Environment'', about 95 million cubic meters per day of desalinated water dey produced worldwide, and demand dey expected to grow well well make e fit cover global water shortage gap. Because of the energy wey e dey consume, desalinating sea water normally cost pass fresh water from [[surface water]] or [[groundwater]], [[Reclaimed water|water recycling]] and [[water conservation]]. But sometimes, these alternatives no dey available and depletion of water reserves don turn serious problem worldwide.<ref name="EbrahimiNajafpourYousefiKebria2019">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.002 |title=Performance of microbial desalination cell for salt removal and energy generation using different catholyte solutions |journal=Desalination |volume=432 |page=1 |year=2019 |last1=Ebrahimi |first1=Atieh |last2=Najafpour |first2=Ghasem D |last3=Yousefi Kebria |first3=Daryoush }}</ref><ref name="Transcript">{{cite web |title=Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom |website=Science History Institute|date=March 19, 2019 |access-date=August 27, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Elsaid |first1=Khaled |last2=Kamil |first2=Mohammed |last3=Sayed |first3=Enas Taha |last4=Abdelkareem |first4=Mohammad Ali |last5=Wilberforce |first5=Tabbi |last6=Olabi |first6=A. |title=Environmental impact of desalination technologies: A review |journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]] |date=2020 |volume=748 |article-number=141528 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141528|pmid=32818886 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.74841528E }}</ref> Desalination processes dey use either thermal methods (like [[distillation]]) or membrane-based methods (example be [[reverse osmosis]]).<ref name="Cohen 2021 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cohen | first=Yoram | title=Materials and Energy | chapter=Advances in Water Desalination Technologies | publisher=WORLD SCIENTIFIC | year=2021 | volume=17 | isbn=978-981-12-2697-7 | issn=2335-6596 | doi=10.1142/12009 | page=| s2cid=224974880 }}</ref><ref name="IWA2022">{{Cite book |url=https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/850/Reducing-the-Greenhouse-Gas-Emissions-of-Water-and |title=Reducing the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Water and Sanitation Services: Overview of emissions and their potential reduction illustrated by utility know-how |date=2022 |publisher=IWA Publishing |isbn=978-1-78906-317-2 |editor-last=Alix |editor-first=Alexandre |language=en |doi=10.2166/9781789063172 |s2cid=250128707 |editor-last2=Bellet |editor-first2=Laurent |editor-last3=Trommsdorff |editor-first3=Corinne |editor-last4=Audureau |editor-first4=Iris}}</ref>{{rp|24}} As of 2020, global desalination capacity reach about 97 million m³/day from over 16,800 plants wey dey operate, while contracted projects push total potential capacity go over 114 million m³/day worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eke |first1=Joyner |last2=Yusuf |first2=Ahmed |last3=Giwa |first3=Adewale |last4=Sodiq |first4=Ahmed |date=December 1, 2020 |title=The global status of desalination: An assessment of current desalination technologies, plants and capacity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916420313114 |journal=Desalination |volume=495 |article-number=114633 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2020.114633 |bibcode=2020Desal.49514633E |issn=0011-9164|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For 2018, global energy use for desalination be around 3 kWh/m³ (2018), and e don improve sharply from 20–30 kWh/m³ for 1970.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Even with that, desalination still use about 25% of the energy wey water sector dey consume for 2016.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Big companies inside desalination industry include Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens AG, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries Inc., and Xylem.<ref>{{Cite press release |publisher=Research and Markets |date=March 7, 2025 |title=Desalination Market Forecast Report and Competitive Analysis 2025–2033 Featuring Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries, Xylem |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/03/07/3038838/28124/en/Desalination-Market-Forecast-Report-and-Competitive-Analysis-2025-2033-Featuring-Acciona-Dow-Evoqua-Water-Technologies-Siemens-DuPont-Doosan-Enerbility-Toray-Industries-Xylem.html |access-date=December 8, 2025 |via=GlobeNewswire News Room |language=en-us}}</ref> {{toclimit|3}} ==History== {{See also|Distillation#History|Distilled water#History}} ===Ancient times=== Early ideas about desalination fit trace back to [[Aristotle]], wey observe for ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'' say when seawater evaporate, the vapor wey come out go condense as fresh water instead of salt water. This one show early understanding of evaporation and condensation. He also explain say wax vessel fit still give potable water after e soak inside seawater, like primitive filtration.<ref>Aristotle with E.W. Webster, trans., ''Meteorologica'', in: Ross, W. D., ed., ''The Works of Aristotle'', vol. 3, (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1931), Book III, [https://archive.org/stream/workstranslatedi03arisuoft#page/n71/mode/2up §358: 16–18 and §359: 1–5.]</ref> References to seawater desalination also appear for ancient China. Texts from [[Period of the Warring States]] and the [[Han dynasty|Eastern Han dynasty]] describe how bamboo mats wey dem use steam rice for long time develop thin outer layer wey dem believe say fit absorb salt.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Huachao |last2=Xu |first2=Haoyuan |date=March 1, 2021 |title=Investigation and Research on the Status Quo of Informatization Development at Home and Abroad |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=692 |issue=2 |article-number=022040 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/692/2/022040 |bibcode=2021E&ES..692b2040Z |issn=1755-1307 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Generally, experiments on desalination dey appear throughout Antiquity and [[Middle Ages]], even though dem no dey large scale.<ref>See: *Joseph Needham, Ho Ping-Yu, Lu Gwei-Djen, Nathan Sivin, ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1980), [https://books.google.com/books?id=xrNDwP0pS8sC&pg=PA60 p. 60.] *[[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (fl. 200 A.D.) wrote, in his commentary on Aristotle's ''Meteorology'', that if a lid is placed on a boiling pot of seawater, fresh water will condense on the lid. *In his ''Hexaemeron'', Homily IV, § 7, [[Basil of Caesarea|St. Basil of Caesarea]] (c. 329–379 AD) mentioned that sailors produced fresh water via distillation. Saint Basil with Sister Agnes Clare Way, trans., ''Saint Basil Exegetic Homilies'' (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1963), p. 65. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AWxwDmFvDiwC&pg=PA65 From p. 65:] "Moreover, it is possible to see the water of the sea boiled by sailors, who, catching the vapors in sponges, relieve their thirst fairly well in times of need."</ref> But real large-scale desalination no become possible until modern time.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sample |url=http://www.desware.net/Sample-Chapters/D01/01-003.pdf |website=www.desware.net}}</ref> ===Middle Ages and Renaissance (5th–17th century)=== During Middle Ages, desalination remain small and mostly depend on [[distillation]], where dem heat seawater make vapor, then condense am back into fresh water. These methods mostly serve emergency or maritime use.<ref name="Birkett1984">{{Cite journal |last=Birkett |first=James D. |date=January 1, 1984 |title=A brief illustrated history of desalination: From the bible to 1940 |journal=Desalination |language=en |volume=50 |pages=17–52 |doi=10.1016/0011-9164(84)85014-6 |bibcode=1984Desal..50...17B |issn=0011-9164}}</ref> Renaissance time bring improvement through people like [[Leonardo da Vinci]], wey suggest say dem fit make distilled water more efficient by improving still design for cookstove.<ref>J. R. Partington, History of Chemistry, Vol. 2–3, Macmillan, London, 1962.</ref> For Central Europe too, distillation continue develop, even though e no always focus only on desalination.<ref name="Birkett1984" /> Some historical reports from 16th century talk say 1560, for island near Tunisia coast, Spanish soldiers wey dem surround reportedly build still to produce fresh water, but exact design no clear.<ref name="Birkett1984" /><ref name="NebbiaMenozzi1966">{{Cite journal |last1=Nebbia |first1=G. |last2=Menozzi |first2=G.N. |date=1966 |title=Aspetti storici della dissalazione |journal=Acqua Ind. |volume=41–42 |pages=3–20}}</ref> ===Pre-industrial and early modern period (16th–18th century)=== Before [[Industrial Revolution]], desalination mainly happen for ship, where dem need fresh water for long journey. Ship distillation help top up stored water when e finish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haarhoff |first=Johannes |date=February 1, 2009 |title=The Distillation of Seawater on Ships in the 17th and 18th Centuries |journal=Heat Transfer Engineering |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=237–250 |bibcode=2009HTrEn..30..237H |doi=10.1080/01457630701266413 |issn=0145-7632 |s2cid=121765890}}</ref> Interest for desalination increase for 17th century. People like [[Francis Bacon]] and [[Walter Raleigh]] talk about water purification, while Sir [[Richard Hawkins]] report say him crew dey get fresh water by distilling seawater on ship.<ref name="NebbiaMenozzi1966" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baker |first=M.N. |date=1981 |title=Quest for Pure Water |journal=Am. Water Works Assoc. 2nd Ed. |volume=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haarhoff |first=Johannes |date=February 1, 2009 |title=The Distillation of Seawater on Ships in the 17th and 18th Centuries |journal=Heat Transfer Engineering |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=237–250 |bibcode=2009HTrEn..30..237H |doi=10.1080/01457630701266413 |issn=0145-7632 |s2cid=121765890}}</ref> This interest lead to first patents for desalination machines. Patents come for 1675 and 1683 to [[William Walcot]] and Robert Fitzgerald and others, but dem no really scale am well.<ref>W. Walcot, Purifying Water, Britain No. 184, 1675</ref><ref>R. Fitzgerald et al, Purifying Salt Water, Britain No. 226, 1683.</ref><ref name="Birkett1984" /> Progress remain slow, and from mid-17th century reach 18th century, no major change happen for basic distillation.<ref name="Birkett1984" /> When frigate ''[[Protector (1779 frigate)|Protector]]'' sell to Denmark for 1780s and dem rename am ''Hussaren'', dem study its distillation system well well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enkel Søgning |url=http://www.orlogsbasen.dk/visskib.asp?skib=Hussaren&la=1 |website=www.orlogsbasen.dk |access-date=February 12, 2020 |archive-date=July 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729204853/http://www.orlogsbasen.dk/visskib.asp?skib=Hussaren&la=1 }}</ref> For United States, [[Thomas Jefferson]] later compile earlier heat-based desalination methods and share guidance for ship use.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thomas Jefferson |date=November 21, 1791 |title=Report on Desalination of Sea Water |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-22-02-0296}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Desalination of Sea Water |url=https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/desalination-sea-water |website=Thomas Jefferson's Monticello}}</ref> ===Industrial era (19th century)=== Desalination begin change sharply for 19th century as steam engine and thermodynamics develop. Demand for clean water for steam boilers and colonial expansion into dry areas push the technology forward.<ref name="Birkett1984" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Oliver |url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=dtgTngEACAAJ}} |title=The Efficient Use of Steam: Written for the Fuel Efficiency Committee of the Ministry of Fuel and Power |date=1956 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fraser-Macdonald |first=A. |url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=yJxBAAAAIAAJ}} |title=Our Ocean Railways: Or, The Rise, Progress, and Development of Ocean Steam Navigation |date=1893 |publisher=Chapman and Hall, Limited |language=en}}</ref> More efficient thermal systems like [[multiple-effect evaporator]]s come, where heat dey reuse across stages.<ref name="Birkett1984" /> For 1852, [[Alphonse René le Mire de Normandy]] patent vertical-tube seawater distillation system wey become popular for ships because e simple and easy to build.<ref name="Birkett1984" /> By late 19th century, land-based desalination plants begin appear more.<ref name="Birkett2010">{{Cite book |last=Birkett |first=James D. |title=History, Development and Management of Water Resources |date=May 15, 2010 |publisher=EOLSS Publishers |isbn=978-1-84826-419-9 |volume=I |page=381 |language=en |chapter=History of Desalination Before Large-Scale Use |chapter-url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=8bfODAAAQBAJ|page=381}}}}</ref> For 1860s, U.S. Army install Normandy evaporators for [[Key West]] and [[Dry Tortugas]].<ref name="Birkett1984" /><ref name="Birkett2010" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Birkett |first=J. D. |title=The 1861 de Normandy desalting unit at Key West |journal=International Desalination & Water Reuse Quarterly |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=53–57}}</ref> For 1880s, another plant come up for [[Suakin]] to give British troops fresh water using six-effect distillation.<ref name="Birkett1984" /><ref name="Birkett2010" /> {{Short description|Removal of salts from water}} {{Use mdy dates|date=February 2026}} [[File:Reverse osmosis desalination plant.JPG|thumb|312x312px|A reverse osmosis desalination plant in Barcelona, Spain]] '''Desalination''' na the artificial process wey dem take turn salt water (normally [[sea water]]) into [[fresh water]]. In simple terms, desalination na the removal of salts and minerals from substance.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/desalination "Desalination"] (definition), ''The American Heritage Science Dictionary'', via dictionary.com. Retrieved August 19, 2007.</ref> E fit be say dem dey desalinate saltwater, especially sea water, so dem fit produce water for human drinking or irrigation, while dem dey produce [[brine]] as by-product.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019"/> People interest for desalination dey mostly focus on how dem go take provide fresh water for human use in cost-effective way. Alongside recycled [[wastewater]], e be one of the few [[water resources]] wey no depend on rainfall.<ref name="Fischetti2007"/> As pressure on fresh water supply dey increase globally, desalination don become important part of water security strategies worldwide. According to 2019 review for ''Science of the Total Environment'', about 95 million cubic meters per day of desalinated water dey produced globally, and demand still dey rise to help balance global water shortage. Because of energy wey e dey consume, desalinating seawater dey cost more than fresh water from [[surface water]] or [[groundwater]], [[Reclaimed water|water recycling]] and [[water conservation]]. But these alternatives no always dey available, and many places dey face serious depletion of water resources.<ref name="EbrahimiNajafpourYousefiKebria2019"/><ref name="Transcript"/><ref name=":1"/> Desalination methods dey use either thermal processes (like [[distillation]]) or membrane-based processes (like [[reverse osmosis]]).<ref name="Cohen 2021 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cohen | first=Yoram | title=Materials and Energy | chapter=Advances in Water Desalination Technologies | publisher=WORLD SCIENTIFIC | year=2021 | volume=17 | isbn=978-981-12-2697-7 | issn=2335-6596 | doi=10.1142/12009 | page=| s2cid=224974880 }}</ref><ref name="IWA2022"/>{{rp|24}} As of 2020, global desalination capacity stand around 97 million m³ per day from over 16,800 plants wey dey operate, while projects wey dey come fit push total capacity pass 114 million m³ per day worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eke |first1=Joyner |last2=Yusuf |first2=Ahmed |last3=Giwa |first3=Adewale |last4=Sodiq |first4=Ahmed |date=December 1, 2020 |title=The global status of desalination: An assessment of current desalination technologies, plants and capacity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916420313114 |journal=Desalination |volume=495 |article-number=114633 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2020.114633 |bibcode=2020Desal.49514633E |issn=0011-9164|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 2018, global energy use for desalination be about 3 kWh/m³, and this don improve plenty from 20–30 kWh/m³ wey dem dey use around 1970.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Even though e improve, desalination still dey use about 25% of energy wey water sector consume as of 2016.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Key companies wey dey inside desalination industry include Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens AG, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries Inc., and Xylem.<ref>{{Cite press release |publisher=Research and Markets |date=March 7, 2025 |title=Desalination Market Forecast Report and Competitive Analysis 2025–2033 Featuring Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries, Xylem |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/03/07/3038838/28124/en/Desalination-Market-Forecast-Report-and-Competitive-Analysis-2025-2033-Featuring-Acciona-Dow-Evoqua-Water-Technologies-Siemens-DuPont-Doosan-Enerbility-Toray-Industries-Xylem.html |access-date=December 8, 2025 |via=GlobeNewswire News Room |language=en-us}}</ref> {{toclimit|3}} ==History== ===Ancient times=== Early ideas about desalination fit trace back go Aristotle, wey observe for ''Meteorology'' say when seawater evaporate, the vapor wey form dey turn fresh water instead of salty water. This show early understanding of evaporation and condensation.<ref>Aristotle with E.W. Webster, trans., ''Meteorologica'', in: Ross, W. D., ed., ''The Works of Aristotle'', vol. 3, (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1931), Book III, [https://archive.org/stream/workstranslatedi03arisuoft#page/n71/mode/2up §358: 16–18 and §359: 1–5.]</ref> Also, ancient China get records wey mention seawater treatment ideas during Period of the Warring States and Eastern Han dynasty, where bamboo mats for rice steaming dey believed to absorb salt layer after long use.<ref name=":2"/> For Antiquity and Middle Ages, people dey experiment small-small with desalination methods, but dem no dey large scale.<ref>See: *Joseph Needham, Ho Ping-Yu, Lu Gwei-Djen, Nathan Sivin, ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1980), [https://books.google.com/books?id=xrNDwP0pS8sC&pg=PA60 p. 60.] *[[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (fl. 200 A.D.) wrote, in his commentary on Aristotle's ''Meteorology'', that if a lid is placed on a boiling pot of seawater, fresh water will condense on the lid. *In his ''Hexaemeron'', Homily IV, § 7, [[Basil of Caesarea|St. Basil of Caesarea]] (c. 329–379 AD) mentioned that sailors produced fresh water via distillation. Saint Basil with Sister Agnes Clare Way, trans., ''Saint Basil Exegetic Homilies'' (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1963), p. 65. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AWxwDmFvDiwC&pg=PA65 From p. 65:] "Moreover, it is possible to see the water of the sea boiled by sailors, who, catching the vapors in sponges, relieve their thirst fairly well in times of need."</ref> But real large-scale desalination no start until modern era.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sample |url=http://www.desware.net/Sample-Chapters/D01/01-003.pdf |website=www.desware.net}}</ref> ===Middle Ages and Renaissance (5th–17th century)=== For Middle Ages, desalination still small scale and mostly depend on distillation, where dem dey heat seawater make steam, then cool am make fresh water form. These methods mainly dey use for ships and emergency cases.<ref name="Birkett1984"/> During Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci even suggest better distillation design for cookstove use.<ref>J. R. Partington, History of Chemistry, Vol. 2–3, Macmillan, London, 1962.</ref> By 16th century, some emergency desalination systems reportedly dey used during siege situations, like example for Tunisia coast in 1560.<ref name="Birkett1984" /><ref name="NebbiaMenozzi1966"/> ===Pre-industrial and early modern period (16th–18th century)=== Before Industrial Revolution, desalination mostly dey happen on ships, where sailors dey distill seawater when fresh water finish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haarhoff |first=Johannes |date=February 1, 2009 |title=The Distillation of Seawater on Ships in the 17th and 18th Centuries |journal=Heat Transfer Engineering |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=237–250 |bibcode=2009HTrEn..30..237H |doi=10.1080/01457630701266413 |issn=0145-7632 |s2cid=121765890}}</ref> Interest for desalination increase for 17th century when people like Francis Bacon and Walter Raleigh discuss water purification ideas. Also Sir Richard Hawkins report say him crew dey use seawater distillation for fresh water.<ref name="NebbiaMenozzi1966" /> First patents for desalination apparatus appear around 1675 and 1683, but technology no spread well because e hard to scale.<ref>W. Walcot, Purifying Water, Britain No. 184, 1675</ref><ref>R. Fitzgerald et al, Purifying Salt Water, Britain No. 226, 1683.</ref><ref name="Birkett1984" /> Progress remain slow until end of 18th century.<ref name="Birkett1984" /> ===Industrial era (19th century)=== In 19th century, steam engine and thermodynamics advance make desalination improve well-well. Demand for clean boiler water and colonial expansion into dry areas push development forward.<ref name="Birkett1984" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Oliver |url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=dtgTngEACAAJ}} |title=The Efficient Use of Steam: Written for the Fuel Efficiency Committee of the Ministry of Fuel and Power |date=1956 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fraser-Macdonald |first=A. |url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=yJxBAAAAIAAJ}} |title=Our Ocean Railways: Or, The Rise, Progress, and Development of Ocean Steam Navigation |date=1893 |publisher=Chapman and Hall, Limited |language=en}}</ref> Better thermal systems like multiple-effect evaporators help reuse heat across stages.<ref name="Birkett1984" /> By 1852, Alphonse René le Mire de Normandy develop vertical-tube distillation unit wey become popular for ships.<ref name="Birkett1984" /> By late 19th century, land-based desalination plants start appear. U.S. Army even install systems for Key West and Dry Tortugas in 1860s.<ref name="Birkett1984" /><ref name="Birkett2010"/> ===20th century=== After World War II, desalination technology grow fast. Methods like multi-stage flash distillation and other thermal systems become common for water-scarce regions. Freeze–thaw methods also develop as alternative approach based on crystallization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mao |first1=Shudi |last2=Onggowarsito |first2=Casey |last3=Feng |first3=An |last4=Zhang |first4=Stella |last5=Fu |first5=Qiang |last6=Nghiem |first6=Long D. |date=2023 |title=A cryogel solar vapor generator with rapid water replenishment and high intermediate water content for seawater desalination |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=858–867 |doi=10.1039/d2ta08317e |issn=2050-7488}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zambrano |first1=A. |last2=Ruiz |first2=Y. |last3=Hernández |first3=E. |last4=Raventós |first4=M. |last5=Moreno |first5=F.L. |date=June 2018 |title=Freeze desalination by the integration of falling film and block freeze-concentration techniques |journal=Desalination |volume=436 |pages=56–62 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2018.02.015 |bibcode=2018Desal.436...56Z |hdl=2117/116164 |issn=0011-9164 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In 1955, United States create Office of Saline Water to support research.<ref name="Transcript" /><ref name="Records">{{cite web |date=August 15, 2016 |title=Records of the office of Saline Water |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/380.html}}</ref> One big breakthrough be reverse osmosis, where pressure dey force salt water pass membrane wey fit block salt. By late 1960s and 1970s, RO become strong alternative. Research from California universities, Dow Chemical and DuPont help develop am.<ref>{{cite web |author=David Talbot |date=November 23, 2015 |title=Bankrolling the 10 Breakthrough Technologies: Megascale Desalination |url=http://www.ide-tech.com/blog/publication/bankrolling-10-breakthrough-technologies-megascale-desalination/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003210024/http://www.ide-tech.com/blog/publication/bankrolling-10-breakthrough-technologies-megascale-desalination/ |archive-date=October 3, 2016 |access-date=October 3, 2016}}</ref> First industrial desalination plant for US open for Freeport, Texas in 1961.<ref name="Transcript" /> First commercial RO plant start for California in 1965.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fujiwara |first1=Masatoshi |last2=Aoshima |first2=Yaichi |title=Mechanisms for Long-Term Innovation Technology and Business Development of Reverse Osmosis Membranes |date=2022 |publisher=[[Springer Nature|Springer]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-19-4895-4 |page=59}}</ref> By 1975, first seawater RO plant start operate. ===21st century and modern developments=== Today, desalination plants don spread worldwide, especially for Middle East.<ref name="AngelakisValipourChooAhmedBabaKumarToorWang2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Angelakis |first1=Andreas N. |last2=Valipour |first2=Mohammad |last3=Choo |first3=Kwang-Ho |last4=Ahmed |first4=Abdelkader T. |last5=Baba |first5=Alper |last6=Kumar |first6=Rohitashw |last7=Toor |first7=Gurpal S. |last8=Wang |first8=Zhiwei |date=August 16, 2021 |title=Desalination: From Ancient to Present and Future |journal=Water |volume=13 |issue=16 |page=2222 |doi=10.3390/w13162222 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021Water..13.2222A |issn=2073-4441 |hdl=11147/11590 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Reverse osmosis now be the most common method because e dey efficient and scalable.<ref name="AngelakisValipourChooAhmedBabaKumarToorWang2021" /> Modern research dey focus on sustainability, renewable energy integration like solar and wind, plus advanced membranes like graphene, ceramic and nanocomposite types.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Obaidi |first1=Mudhar A. |last2=Alsadaie |first2=Salih |last3=Alsarayreh |first3=Alanood |last4=Sowgath |first4=Md. Tanvir |last5=Mujtaba |first5=Iqbal M. |date=April 11, 2024 |title=Integration of Renewable Energy Systems in Desalination |journal=Processes |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |page=770 |doi=10.3390/pr12040770 |doi-access=free |issn=2227-9717}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Graphene oxide-based membranes for water desalination and purification|first1=Saurabh Kr|last1=Tiwary|first2=Maninderjeet|last2=Singh|first3=Shubham Vasant|last3=Chavan|first4=Alamgir|last4=Karim|date=March 27, 2024|journal=npj 2D Materials and Applications|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–19|article-number=27 |doi=10.1038/s41699-024-00462-z|doi-access=free}}</ref> As of 2021, about 22,000 desalination plants dey operate worldwide.<ref name="AngelakisValipourChooAhmedBabaKumarToorWang2021" /> ==Applications== {{external media | width = 160px | float = upright | headerimage= | audio1 = [https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom "Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought"], Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239, March 19, 2019, [[Science History Institute]] }} [[File:Multiflash.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|A schematic of a [[multistage flash distillation|multistage flash desalinator]]<br />A – steam in&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;B – seawater in&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;C – potable water out<br />D – brine out (waste)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;E – [[condensation|condensate]] out&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;F – heat exchange&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;G – condensation collection (desalinated water)<br />H – brine heater<br /> The [[pressure vessel]] acts as a [[countercurrent exchange|countercurrent heat exchanger]]. A [[vacuum pump]] lowers the pressure in the vessel to facilitate the evaporation of the heated seawater ([[brine]]) which enters the vessel from the right side (darker shades indicate lower temperature). The steam condenses on the pipes on top of the vessel in which the fresh sea water moves from the left to the right.]] There dey about 21,000 desalination plants worldwide. Biggest ones dey Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Israel. The biggest plant na Ras Al-Khair for Saudi Arabia, with capacity of 1,401,000 cubic meters per day.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Largest water desalination plant|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/425709-largest-water-desalination-plant|access-date=August 21, 2020|website=Guinness World Records|language=en-GB}}</ref> Desalination still dey expensive compared to other water sources, so e only cover small percentage of global water use.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Do Thi |first1=Huyen Trang |last2=Pasztor |first2=Tibor |last3=Fozer |first3=Daniel |last4=Manenti |first4=Flavio |last5=Toth |first5=Andras Jozsef |date=January 2021 |title=Comparison of Desalination Technologies Using Renewable Energy Sources with Life Cycle, PESTLE, and Multi-Criteria Decision Analyses |journal=Water |language=en |volume=13 |issue=21 |page=3023 |doi=10.3390/w13213023 |issn=2073-4441|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021Water..13..3023D |hdl=11311/1197124 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> E dey mostly useful for places wey dry and near sea, plus ships and submarines. Big use dey for cities like Singapore, California, and Persian Gulf region.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Theng |first=Charlotte Kng Yoong |date=September 16, 2022 |title=From NEWater to vertical farming: Key milestones in Singapore's 50-year journey towards sustainability {{!}} The Straits Times |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/environment/mse-from-newater-to-vertical-farming-key-milestones-singapore-50-year-journey-towards-sustainability |access-date=April 21, 2023 |website=www.straitstimes.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Canon |first=Gabrielle |date=May 11, 2022 |title=California to decide fate of controversial desalination plant amid brutal drought |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/11/california-desalination-plant-water-drought |access-date=April 21, 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 3, 2022 |title=Mini desalination plants could refresh the parched West |url=https://www.popsci.com/environment/desalination-drought-california/ |access-date=April 21, 2023 |website=Popular Science |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Le Quesne |first1=W. J. F. |last2=Fernand |first2=L. |last3=Ali |first3=T. S. |last4=Andres |first4=O. |last5=Antonpoulou |first5=M. |last6=Burt |first6=J. A. |last7=Dougherty |first7=W. W. |last8=Edson |first8=P. J. |last9=El Kharraz |first9=J. |last10=Glavan |first10=J. |last11=Mamiit |first11=R. J. |date=December 1, 2021 |title=Is the development of desalination compatible with sustainable development of the Arabian Gulf? |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |language=en |volume=173 |issue=Pt A |article-number=112940 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112940 |pmid=34537571 |bibcode=2021MarPB.17312940L |s2cid=237574682 |issn=0025-326X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Energy cost dey change depending on salinity, plant size and method. Even though cost dey reduce with technology, desalination still dey more expensive than normal water sources.<ref name="WarsingerBatch">{{cite journal |last1=Warsinger |first1=David M. |last2=Tow |first2=Emily W. |last3=Nayar |first3=Kishor G. |last4=Maswadeh |first4=Laith A. |last5=Lienhard V |first5=John H. |date=2016 |title=Energy efficiency of batch and semi-batch (CCRO) reverse osmosis desalination |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/105441/4/CCRO%20with%20tank%20journal%20paper%20v116%20Preprint.pdf |journal=Water Research |volume=106 |pages=272–282 |bibcode=2016WatRe.106..272W |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.029 |hdl=1721.1/105441 |pmid=27728821 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Some researchers dey argue say desalination no go fit solve all water problem especially for inland or poor regions because transport cost fit even higher than desalination itself.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Yuan |title=Evaluating the costs of desalination and water transport |journal=Water Resources Research |date=March 2, 2005 |volume=41 |issue=3 |page=03003 |article-number=2004WR003749 |doi=10.1029/2004WR003749|bibcode=2005WRR....41.3003Z |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0011-FF1E-C |s2cid=16289710 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> So sometimes e fit be cheaper to carry fresh water from far place than to desalinate am locally. ==Technologies== <noinclude>{{Desalination}}</noinclude> The main desalination methods na distillation and reverse osmosis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shammas |first=Nazih K. |title=Water and wastewater engineering: water supply and wastewater removal |date=2011 |publisher=Wiley |others=Lawrence K. Wang |isbn=978-0-470-41192-6 |location=Hoboken, N.J. |oclc=639163996}}</ref> Other methods still dey exist, but all get advantage and disadvantage. Generally, dem divide am into membrane-based methods (like reverse osmosis) and thermal-based methods (like multi-stage flash distillation).<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019" /> Traditional method na distillation, where dem dey boil seawater and collect the condensed fresh water while salt remain behind.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oas.org/usde/publications/unit/oea59e/ch21.htm|title=2.2 Desalination by distillation|website=www.oas.org}}</ref> Today, two main technologies dominate global desalination: multi-stage flash distillation and reverse osmosis. === Distillation === ====Solar distillation==== Solar distillation dey copy natural water cycle, wey sun dey heat sea water make evaporation happen.<ref name=Khawaji /> After evaporation, water vapor go condense for cold surface.<ref name=Khawaji /> There be two types of solar desalination. First one dey use photovoltaic cells turn solar energy into electricity wey dey power desalination. Second one dey convert solar energy into heat, and dem dey call am solar thermal powered desalination. ====Natural evaporation==== Water fit evaporate through different physical effects apart from solar irradiation. Dem include these effects inside multidisciplinary desalination method for IBTS Greenhouse. The IBTS be industrial desalination (power) plant for one side and greenhouse wey dey operate with natural water cycle (scaled down 1:10) for the other side. The different evaporation and condensation processes dey happen inside low-tech utilities, partly underground, plus the architectural shape of the building itself. This integrated biotectural system dey very suitable for large scale desert greening as e get km² footprint for water distillation and same area for landscape transformation for desert greening, meaning regeneration of natural fresh water cycles.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} ====Vacuum distillation==== For vacuum distillation, atmospheric pressure dey reduce, so the temperature wey dem need to evaporate water go drop. Liquids dey boil when vapor pressure match ambient pressure, and vapor pressure dey increase as temperature rise. So normally, liquids go boil at lower temperature when atmospheric pressure dey lower than normal. Because of this reduced pressure, low-temperature "waste" heat from electricity generation or industrial processes fit be used. ====Multi-stage flash distillation==== Dem dey evaporate water and separate am from sea water through multi-stage flash distillation, wey be series of flash evaporations.<ref name=Khawaji>{{cite journal|last1=Khawaji|first1=Akili D.|last2=Kutubkhanah|first2=Ibrahim K.|last3=Wie|first3=Jong-Mihn|title=Advances in seawater desalination technologies|journal=Desalination|volume=221|issue=1–3|pages=47–69|doi=10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.067|date=March 2008|bibcode=2008Desal.221...47K }}</ref> Each next flash process dey use energy wey dey release from condensation of water vapor from previous step.<ref name=Khawaji /> ====Multiple-effect distillation==== Multiple-effect distillation (MED) dey work through series of steps wey dem dey call "effects".<ref name=Khawaji /> Incoming water dem dey spray am onto pipes wey dem then heat make steam form. The steam then dey use heat next batch of incoming sea water.<ref name=Khawaji /> To increase efficiency, the steam wey dey heat sea water fit come from nearby power plants.<ref name=Khawaji /> Even though this method be the most thermodynamically efficient among heat-powered methods,<ref name=WarsingerEntropy>{{cite journal|last1=Warsinger|first1=David M.|last2=Mistry|first2= Karan H.|last3=Nayar|first3=Kishor G.|last4=Chung|first4=Hyung Won|last5=Lienhard V|first5=John H.|title=Entropy Generation of Desalination Powered by Variable Temperature Waste Heat|journal=Entropy|volume=17|issue=12|pages=7530–7566|doi=10.3390/e17117530|date=2015|bibcode=2015Entrp..17.7530W|url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/100423/1/Entropy%20Generation%20of%20Desalination%20Powered%20by%20Variable%20Temperature%20Waste%20Heat%2c%20Warsinger.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> e still get some limits like maximum temperature and maximum number of effects.<ref name="Al-Shammiri">{{cite journal|title=Multi-effect distillation plants: state of the art|last2=Safar|first2=M.|date=November 1999|journal=Desalination|volume=126|issue=1–3|pages=45–59|doi=10.1016/S0011-9164(99)00154-X|last1=Al-Shammiri|first1=M.|bibcode=1999Desal.126...45A }}</ref> ====Vapor-compression distillation==== Vapor-compression evaporation dey use mechanical compressor or jet stream compress vapor wey dey above liquid.<ref name="WarsingerEntropy" /> The compressed vapor then dey give heat wey dey needed to evaporate the rest of the sea water.<ref name="Khawaji" /> Since this system only need power, e dey more cost effective if dem keep am small scale.<ref name="Khawaji" /> ==== Membrane distillation ==== Membrane distillation dey use temperature difference across membrane make vapor from brine solution evaporate and pure water go condense for cold side.<ref name="WarsingerFramework">{{cite journal|last1=Warsinger|first1=David M.|last2=Tow|first2=Emily W.|last3=Swaminathan|first3=Jaichander|last4=Lienhard V|first4=John H.|date=2017|title=Theoretical framework for predicting inorganic fouling in membrane distillation and experimental validation with calcium sulfate|url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/107916/1/Theoretical%20framework%20for%20predicting%20inorganic%20fouling%20in%20membrane%20distillation%20and%20experimental%20validation%20with%20calcium%20sulfate-%20warsinger%20preprint.pdf|journal=Journal of Membrane Science|volume=528|pages=381–390|doi=10.1016/j.memsci.2017.01.031|bibcode=2017JMeSc.528..381W |doi-access=free}}</ref> The membrane design fit affect efficiency and durability well well. One study show say membrane wey dem create through co-axial electrospinning of PVDF-HFP and silica aerogel fit filter 99.99% salt after 30 days continuous use.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Irving|first=Michael|date=July 6, 2021|title=Mixed up membrane desalinates water with 99.99 percent efficiency|url=https://newatlas.com/materials/desalination-membrane-coaxial-electrospinning-nanofibers/|url-status=live|access-date=July 7, 2021|website=New Atlas|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706034413/https://newatlas.com/materials/desalination-membrane-coaxial-electrospinning-nanofibers/ |archive-date=July 6, 2021 }}</ref> === Osmosis === ====Reverse osmosis==== [[File:PlantaSchemaNotional.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A schematic representation of a typical desalination plant using reverse osmosis. Hybrid desalination plants using #Freeze–thaw liquid nitrogen freeze thaw in conjunction with reverse osmosis have been found to improve efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Najim |first1=Abdul |title=A review of advances in freeze desalination and future prospects |journal=npj Clean Water |publisher=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41545-022-00158-1 |date=April 19, 2022|volume=5 |issue=1 |article-number=15 |s2cid=248231737 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022npjCW...5...15N }}</ref> ]] [[File:Diagram-of-Tampa-Bay-Seawater-Desalination-Plant-Process-25.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A reverse osmosis plant in Tampa Bay, Florida]] The main process for desalination in terms of installed capacity and yearly growth be reverse osmosis (RO).<ref>{{cite journal|title=State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination|year=2007|last1=Fritzmann|first1=C|last2=Lowenberg|first2=J|last3=Wintgens|first3=T|last4=Melin|first4=T|journal=Desalination|volume=216|issue=1–3|pages=1–76|doi=10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.009|bibcode=2007Desal.216....1F }}</ref> RO membrane system dey use semi-permeable membranes and applied pressure (for feed side of membrane) to allow water pass while e dey reject salts. Reverse osmosis plant membrane systems normally dey use less energy than thermal desalination processes.<ref name=WarsingerEntropy /> Reverse osmosis dey use thin-film composite membrane, wey get ultra-thin aromatic polyamide layer. This polyamide film dey give membrane transport ability, while other parts of the membrane dey provide mechanical support. The polyamide layer be dense polymer with high surface area, which help water pass well.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1073/pnas.1804708115|pmid=30104388|title=Electron tomography reveals details of the internal microstructure of desalination membranes|year=2018|last1=Culp|first1=T.E.|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=115|issue=35|pages=8694–8699|pmc=6126755|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.8694C|doi-access=free}}</ref> One 2021 study show say water permeability dey controlled mainly by nanoscale mass distribution inside polyamide layer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Culp|first1=Tyler E.|last2=Khara|first2=Biswajit|last3=Brickey|first3=Kaitlyn P.|last4=Geitner|first4=Michael|last5=Zimudzi|first5=Tawanda J.|last6=Wilbur|first6=Jeffrey D.|last7=Jons|first7=Steven D.|last8=Roy|first8=Abhishek|last9=Paul|first9=Mou|last10=Ganapathysubramanian|first10=Baskar|last11=Zydney|first11=Andrew L.|date=January 1, 2021|title=Nanoscale control of internal inhomogeneity enhances water transport in desalination membranes|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb8518|journal=Science|language=en|volume=371|issue=6524|pages=72–75|doi=10.1126/science.abb8518|issn=0036-8075|pmid=33384374|bibcode=2021Sci...371...72C|s2cid=229935140|url-access=subscription}}</ref> RO process need maintenance. Different things fit affect efficiency: ionic contamination (calcium, magnesium etc.), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), bacteria, viruses, colloids, fouling, scaling, and even membrane damage in serious cases. To reduce damage, dem dey add pretreatment stages. Anti-scaling chemicals include acids and polymers like polyacrylamide, polymaleic acid, phosphonates and polyphosphates.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Membranverfahren – Grundlagen der Modul und Anlagenauslegung|last=Rautenbach|first=Melin|publisher=Springer Verlag Berlin|year=2007|isbn=978-3-540-00071-6|location=Germany}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Seawater Desalination – Impacts of Brine and Chemical Discharge on the Marine Environment|publisher=Sabine Lattemann, Thomas Höppner|isbn=978-0-86689-062-5|date=January 1, 2003}}</ref> For fouling prevention, dem dey use biocides (oxidants wey kill bacteria and viruses) like chlorine, ozone, sodium or calcium hypochlorite. From time to time, depending on seawater condition or monitoring signals, membranes need cleaning wey dem dey call shock flushing. Dem dey flush with chemical solution and system must go offline. This process fit affect environment because contaminated water fit go ocean without treatment, and e fit damage marine ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Membranverfahren – Grundlagen der Modul und Anlagenauslegung|last=Rautenbach|first=Melin|publisher=Springer Verlag Berlin|year=2007|isbn=978-3-540-00071-6|location=Germany}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Seawater Desalination – Impacts of Brine and Chemical Discharge on the Marine Environment|publisher=Sabine Lattemann, Thomas Höppner|isbn=978-0-86689-062-5|date=January 1, 2003}}</ref> Off-grid solar-powered desalination units dey use solar energy fill buffer tank for hill with seawater.<ref>{{cite web |title=Access to sustainable water by unlimited resources {{!}} Climate innovation window |url=https://climateinnovationwindow.eu/innovations/access-sustainable-water-unlimited-resources |website=climateinnovationwindow.eu |access-date=February 22, 2019 |archive-date=August 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804105115/https://climateinnovationwindow.eu/innovations/access-sustainable-water-unlimited-resources }}</ref> Reverse osmosis process then dey receive pressurized seawater through gravity for night time, make water production continue without fossil fuel, grid electricity or batteries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Solving fresh water scarcity, using only the sea, sun, earth & wind |url=http://www.glispa.org/glispa-bright-spots/27-emerging-bright-spots/206-elemental |website=www.glispa.org|date=March 7, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=From Plentiful Seawater to Precious Drinking Water |url=https://sidsgbn.org/2018/03/20/tackling-water-scarcity-on-islands/ |website=SIDS Global Business Network |date=March 20, 2018 |access-date=January 31, 2019 |archive-date=October 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022065212/https://sidsgbn.org/2018/03/20/tackling-water-scarcity-on-islands/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=HH Sheikh Maktoum bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum honours 10 winners from 8 countries at Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Global Water Award |url=http://www.suqia.ae/en/media-center/news/112-2017-04-27 |website=Suqia |language=en-gb}}</ref> Nano-tubes dem also dey use for same function (Reverse Osmosis). Deep sea reverse osmosis (DSRO) dey place equipment for seabed to use natural ocean pressure force water through RO membranes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Chant |first=Tim De |date=December 10, 2024 |title=Exclusive: A new wave of desalination startups argues that deeper is better |url=https://techcrunch.com/2024/12/10/a-new-wave-of-desalination-startups-argues-that-deeper-is-better/ |access-date=May 14, 2025 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> One 2021 study suggest say DSRO fit improve energy efficiency reach 50% compared to normal RO.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fasano |first1=Matteo |last2=Morciano |first2=Matteo |last3=Bergamasco |first3=Luca |last4=Chiavazzo |first4=Eliodoro |last5=Zampato |first5=Massimo |last6=Carminati |first6=Stefano |last7=Asinari |first7=Pietro |date=December 15, 2021 |title=Deep-sea reverse osmosis desalination for energy efficient low salinity enhanced oil recovery |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261921010242 |journal=Applied Energy |volume=304 |article-number=117661 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117661 |bibcode=2021ApEn..30417661F |issn=0306-2619|hdl=11696/75400 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The idea of DSRO no be new, but recent technology from deep sea oil and gas industry don make am more possible, and e dey attract startup investments.<ref name=":0" /> The reverse osmosis desalination plant for Tampa Bay currently dey produce about 25 millions gallons of drinkable water every day for the region, showing how effective RO systems fit be when dem dey run well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination |url=https://www.tampabaywater.org/tampa-bay-seawater-desalination/ |access-date=December 10, 2025 |website=Tampa Bay Water |language=en-US}}</ref> ==== Forward osmosis ==== Forward osmosis dey use semi-permeable membrane to separate water from dissolved solutes. The driving force for this separation be osmotic pressure gradient, like high concentration "draw" solution.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019" /> === Freeze–thaw === Freeze–thaw desalination (or freezing desalination) dey use freezing remove fresh water from salt water. Dem dey spray salt water for freezing condition onto pad where ice dey build up. When weather warm, melted water wey don desalinate naturally dey collected. This method depend on long period of natural cold conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usbr.gov/research/dwpr/reportpdfs/report071.pdf |title=Demonstration of the Natural Freeze-Thaw Process for the Desalination of Water From The Devils Lake Chain to Provide Water for the City of Devils Lake |first1=John E. |last1=Boysen |first2=Bradley G. |last2=Stevens |date=August 2002}}</ref> Different freeze–thaw method wey no depend on weather, wey Alexander Zarchin invent, dey freeze seawater inside vacuum. Inside vacuum condition, ice wey don desalinate dey melt and dem collect am, while salt dey separate. ===Electrodialysis=== Electrodialysis dey use electric force move salt ions through charged membrane pairs, wey dey trap salt for alternating channels.<ref>{{cite journal|author1-link=Bart Van der Bruggen |last1=Van der Bruggen|first1=Bart|last2=Vandecasteele|first2=Carlo|title=Distillation vs. membrane filtration: overview of process evolutions in seawater desalination|journal=Desalination|volume=143|issue=3|pages=207–218|doi=10.1016/S0011-9164(02)00259-X|date=June 2002|bibcode=2002Desal.143..207V }}</ref> Different versions dey exist like conventional electrodialysis and electrodialysis reversal.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019" /> Electrodialysis fit remove salt and carbonic acid from seawater at the same time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustafa |first1=Jawad |last2=Mourad |first2=Aya A. -H. I. |last3=Al-Marzouqi |first3=Ali H. |last4=El-Naas |first4=Muftah H. |date=June 1, 2020 |title=Simultaneous treatment of reject brine and capture of carbon dioxide: A comprehensive review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916419316042 |journal=Desalination |language=en |volume=483 |article-number=114386 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2020.114386 |bibcode=2020Desal.48314386M |s2cid=216273247 |issn=0011-9164|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Early estimates show say cost of carbon removal fit be covered partly or fully by selling desalinated water wey dem produce as byproduct.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustafa |first1=Jawad |last2=Al-Marzouqi |first2=Ali H. |last3=Ghasem |first3=Nayef |last4=El-Naas |first4=Muftah H. |last5=Van der Bruggen |first5=Bart |date=February 2023 |title=Electrodialysis process for carbon dioxide capture coupled with salinity reduction: A statistical and quantitative investigation |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0011916422007184 |journal=Desalination |language=en |volume=548 |article-number=116263 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2022.116263|bibcode=2023Desal.54816263M |s2cid=254341024 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> === Microbial desalination === {{Main|Microbial desalination cell}} Microbial desalination cells be biological electrochemical systems wey dey use electro-active bacteria take power desalination of water in situ, using the natural anode and cathode gradient of the electro-active bacteria, and so e dey create internal supercapacitor.<ref name="EbrahimiNajafpourYousefiKebria2019" /> Dem still dey test microbial desalination cells, e never fully reach big commercial scale yet. The first demonstration site open for Denia, Spain, dem call am MIDES-project. The project show say when dem use microbial desalination cells, energy consumption fit reduce to very low levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=First microbial-powered desalination demo site opens in Spain {{!}} Dutch Water Sector |url=https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news/first-microbial-powered-desalination-demo-site-opens-in-spain |access-date=December 8, 2025 |website=www.dutchwatersector.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reddy |first1=Santhosh |last2=Dey |first2=Kaushik |last3=Dsilva Winfred Rufuss |first3=D. |last4=Arulvel |first4=S. |last5=Akinaga |first5=Takeshi |date=October 1, 2024 |title=Forward osmosis desalination: A critical review focussing on recent advancements in draw solution recovery techniques for enhanced efficiency and regeneration |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213343724020992 |journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering |volume=12 |issue=5 |article-number=113968 |doi=10.1016/j.jece.2024.113968 |issn=2213-3437|url-access=subscription }}</ref> === Wave-powered desalination === Wave-powered desalination systems dey convert movement of ocean waves direct into hydraulic power wey dey drive reverse osmosis.<ref name="Hicks Mitcheson Pleass Salevan 1989 pp. 81–94">{{cite journal | last1=Hicks | first1=Douglas C. | last2=Mitcheson | first2=George R. | last3=Pleass | first3=Charles M. | last4=Salevan | first4=James F. | title=Delbouy: Ocean wave-powered seawater reverse osmosis desalination systems | journal=Desalination | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=73 | year=1989 | issn=0011-9164 | doi=10.1016/0011-9164(89)87006-7 | pages=81–94| bibcode=1989Desal..73...81H }}</ref> The aim be to improve efficiency and reduce cost by avoid electricity conversion, reduce excess pressure above osmotic pressure, and improve hydraulic and wave system design.<ref name="Brodersen Bywater Lanter Schennum 2022 p=115393">{{cite journal | last1=Brodersen | first1=Katie M. | last2=Bywater | first2=Emily A. | last3=Lanter | first3=Alec M. | last4=Schennum | first4=Hayden H. | last5=Furia | first5=Kumansh N. | last6=Sheth | first6=Maulee K. | last7=Kiefer | first7=Nathaniel S. | last8=Cafferty | first8=Brittany K. | last9=Rao | first9=Akshay K. | last10=Garcia | first10=Jose M. | last11=Warsinger | first11=David M. | title=Direct-drive ocean wave-powered batch reverse osmosis | journal=Desalination | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=523 | year=2022 | issn=0011-9164 | doi=10.1016/j.desal.2021.115393 | article-number=115393| arxiv=2107.07137 | bibcode=2022Desal.52315393B | s2cid=235898906 }}</ref> One approach be to use submerged buoys for desalination, like wave power system wey companies like CETO and Oneka dey develop.<ref>{{cite web|date=February 2015|title=Perth Wave Energy Project|url=http://arena.gov.au/project/perth-wave-energy-project/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201220304/http://arena.gov.au/project/perth-wave-energy-project/|archive-date=February 1, 2016|access-date=January 26, 2016|website=[[Australian Renewable Energy Agency]]|publisher=[[Government of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]]|quote=This project is the world's first commercial-scale wave energy array that is connected to the grid and has the ability to produce desalinated water.}}</ref><ref name="v390">{{cite web | title=Oneka's Floating Desalination Buoys Set to Revolutionise Water Access | website=H2O Global News | date=December 5, 2023 | url=https://h2oglobalnews.com/onekas-floating-desalination-buoys-set-to-revolutionise-water-access/ | access-date=January 19, 2025}}</ref> CETO systems start operation for Garden Island, Western Australia for 2013,<ref>[http://www.waterworld.com/articles/wwi/print/volume-28/issue-6/regional-spotlight-asia-pacific/wave-powered-desalination-riding-high-in-australia.html Wave-powered Desalination Riding High in Australia] – WaterWorld</ref> and later for Perth in 2015,<ref>{{cite web|title=World's first wave-powered desalination plant now operational in Perth|url=https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/portal/news/worlds-first-wave-powered-desalination-plant-now-operational-perth|website=www.engineersaustralia.org.au}}</ref> while Oneka systems dey operate for Chile, Florida, California, and Caribbean.<ref name="v390"/> === Wind-powered desalination === Wind energy also fit combine with desalination. Like wave energy, direct mechanical-to-hydraulic conversion fit reduce energy loss when powering reverse osmosis systems.<ref name="f476">{{cite journal | last1=Esquivel-Puentes | first1=Helber Antonio | last2=Vacca | first2=Andrea | last3=Chamorro | first3=Leonardo P. | last4=Garcia-Bravo | first4=Jose | last5=Warsinger | first5=David M. | last6=Castillo | first6=Luciano | title=Simultaneous electricity generation and low-energy-intensive water desalination using a hydraulic wind turbine | journal=Desalination | volume=601 | date=2025 | doi=10.1016/j.desal.2025.118526 | article-number=118526 | bibcode=2025Desal.60118526E }}</ref> Wind energy also fit connect to thermal desalination systems.<ref name="n968">{{cite journal | last1=Abdelkareem | first1=Mohammad Ali | last2=Al Radi | first2=Muaz | last3=Mahmoud | first3=Montaser | last4=Sayed | first4=Enas Taha | last5=Salameh | first5=Tareq | last6=Alqadi | first6=Rashid | last7=Kais | first7=El-Cheikh Amer | last8=Olabi | first8=A.G. | title=Recent progress in wind energy-powered desalination | journal=Thermal Science and Engineering Progress | volume=47 | date=2024 | doi=10.1016/j.tsep.2023.102286 | article-number=102286| bibcode=2024TSEP...4702286A }}</ref> === Desalination by thermophoresis === For April 2024,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=XU |first1=Shuqi |last2=Hutchinson |first2=Alice |last3=Taheri |first3=Mahdiar |last4=Corry |first4=Ben |last5=Torres |first5=Juan |date=April 8, 2024 |title=Thermodiffusive desalination |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=2996 |bibcode=2024NatCo..15.2996X |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-47313-5 |pmc=10999432 |pmid=38584165}}</ref> researchers publish experimental results for desalination through thermophoresis. Dem dey call am thermodiffusive desalination. For this method, saline water dey pass through channel wey get temperature gradient across am, perpendicular to flow direction. Because of thermophoresis, particles dey move under this temperature gradient. After separation, researchers split water into fractions and achieve NaCl concentration drop of 3.3% after three passes, with recovery rate of 12.5%. For 2025, dem further demonstrate same process using Burgers cascade,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Shuqi |last2=Torres |first2=Juan F. |date=May 2025 |title=All-liquid thermal desalination and brine concentration via multichannel thermodiffusion |journal=Nature Water |language=en |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=617–631 |doi=10.1038/s44221-025-00428-5 |bibcode=2025NatWa...3..617X |issn=2731-6084|doi-access=free }}</ref> wey previously show improvement in gas separation via thermodiffusion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kyoda |first1=Takeshi |last2=Saiki |first2=Takumi |last3=Matsumoto |first3=Sohei |last4=Watanabe |first4=Shinya |last5=Ono |first5=Naoki |date=2022 |title=Performance improvement of a micro-structured gas separator utilizing the Soret effect |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jtst/17/1/17_21-00271/_article |journal=Journal of Thermal Science and Technology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=21–00271 |doi=10.1299/jtst.21-00271|bibcode=2022JJTST..17...21K |doi-access=free }}</ref> This improved setup, with same footprint as earlier system, show better concentration drop and recovery rate. Researchers also note say the method dey more efficient for treating hypersaline brine, and e get potential for zero-liquid discharge and resource recovery from brine. == Design aspects == === Energy consumption === Energy wey desalination dey use depend on how salty di water be. [[Brackish water]] desalination dey need less energy pass [[seawater]] desalination.<ref name="Panagopoulos2020">{{Cite journal|last=Panagopoulos|first=Argyris|date=December 1, 2020|title=A comparative study on minimum and actual energy consumption for the treatment of desalination brine|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544220318405|journal=Energy|language=en|volume=212|article-number=118733|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2020.118733|bibcode=2020Ene...21218733P |s2cid=224872161|issn=0360-5442|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Energy intensity of seawater desalination don improve well well: as at 2018 e be around 3 kWh/m³, meaning say e reduce like 10 times from 20–30 kWh/m³ wey dey 1970.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} This one dey close to energy wey other water supply systems wey dey carry water far distance dey use,<ref>Wilkinson, Robert C. (March 2007) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121220210850/http://www.westbasin.org/files/general-pdfs/Energy--UCSB-energy-study.pdf "Analysis of the Energy Intensity of Water Supplies for West Basin Municipal Water District"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121220210850/http://www.westbasin.org/files/general-pdfs/Energy--UCSB-energy-study.pdf |date=December 20, 2012 }}, Table on p. 4</ref> but e still high pass local fresh [[water supply|water supplies]] wey dey use like 0.2 kWh/m³ or even less.<ref>[http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/EPRI-Volume-4.pdf "U.S. Electricity Consumption for Water Supply & Treatment"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617040130/http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/EPRI-Volume-4.pdf |date=June 17, 2013 }}, pp. 1–4 Table 1-1, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Water & Sustainability (Volume 4), 2000</ref> Minimum energy wey seawater desalination fit reach be around 1 kWh/m³,<ref name="Panagopoulos2020" /><ref>Elimelech, Menachem (2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140223110451/http://www.nwri-usa.org/documents/Elimelech_000.pdf "Seawater Desalination"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223110451/http://www.nwri-usa.org/documents/Elimelech_000.pdf |date=February 23, 2014 }}, p. 12 ff</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1021/es801330u| pmid = 19068794| title = Energy Issues in Desalination Processes| journal = Environmental Science & Technology| volume = 42| issue = 22| pages = 8193–201| year = 2008| last1 = Semiat | first1 = R. |bibcode = 2008EnST...42.8193S }}</ref> excluding prefiltering and intake/outfall pumping. Under 2 kWh/m³<ref>[http://www.usbr.gov/research/AWT/reportpdfs/ADC_SWRO_DA.pdf "Optimizing Lower Energy Seawater Desalination"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618132743/http://www.usbr.gov/research/AWT/reportpdfs/ADC_SWRO_DA.pdf |date=June 18, 2015 }}, p. 6 figure 1.2, Stephen Dundorf at the IDA World Congress November 2009</ref> don already achieve with [[reverse osmosis]] membrane technology, so e mean say room for further energy reduction small, because RO energy for 1970s be around 16 kWh/m³.<ref name="Panagopoulos2020" /> If United States for example start use desalination supply all domestic water, energy use go increase around 10%, roughly like energy wey domestic refrigerators dey use.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140424044855/http://www.amtaorg.com/wp-content/uploads/7_MembraneDesalinationPowerUsagePutInPerspective.pdf "Membrane Desalination Power Usage Put In Perspective" ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424044855/http://www.amtaorg.com/wp-content/uploads/7_MembraneDesalinationPowerUsagePutInPerspective.pdf |date=April 24, 2014 }}, American Membrane Technology Association (AMTA) April 2009</ref> But domestic water use na small part of total water demand.<ref>[https://water.usgs.gov/edu/wateruse-total.html] Total Water Use in the United States</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable wiki table" |+ Energy consumption of seawater desalination methods (kWh/m³)<ref>[http://www.desware.net/Energy-Requirements-Desalination-Processes.aspx "Energy Requirements of Desalination Processes"], ''Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources'' (DESWARE). Retrieved June 24, 2013</ref> |- style="line-height:120%;" ! Desalination Method ⇨ ! rowspan="2" | [[Multi-stage flash distillation|Multi-stage<br />Flash<br />"MSF"]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Multiple-effect distillation|Multi-Effect<br />Distillation<br />"MED"]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Vapor-compression desalination|Mechanical Vapor<br />Compression<br />"MVC"]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Reverse osmosis|Reverse<br />Osmosis<br />"RO"]] |- style="line-height:120%;" ! Energy ⇩ |- | Electrical energy || 4–6 || 1.5–2.5 || 7–12 || 3–5.5 |- | Thermal energy || 50–110 || 60–110 || ''none'' || ''none'' |- | Electrical equivalent of thermal energy || 9.5–19.5 || 5–8.5 || ''none'' || ''none'' |- | Total equivalent electrical energy || 13.5–25.5 || 6.5–11 || 7–12 || 3–5.5 |} Note: "Electrical equivalent" mean energy wey heat fit produce if e convert to electricity using turbine system. These calculations no include energy for building or maintenance of equipment. Because desalination dey cost energy and money, and e fit affect environment, people dey see am as last option after [[water conservation]]. But this one dey change as cost dey go down. === Cogeneration === [[Cogeneration]] na when one system dey produce heat and electricity together. This heat fit support desalination inside integrated plant wey power plant dey supply energy. Sometimes, plant fit focus on water production only or even feed extra electricity go grid. Most current systems dey use [[fossil fuels]] or [[nuclear power]], especially for Middle East and North Africa where water scarce but oil plenty. Dual-purpose plants dey help reduce total energy use, so desalination become more practical.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.desal.2005.03.095| title = Overview of hybrid desalination systems – current status and future prospects| journal = Desalination| volume = 186| issue = 1–3| page = 207| year = 2005| last1 = Hamed | first1 = O. A. | bibcode = 2005Desal.186..207H| citeseerx = 10.1.1.514.4201}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.desal.2004.06.053| title = The role of nuclear desalination in meeting the potable water needs in water scarce areas in the next decades| journal = Desalination| volume = 166| page = 1| year = 2004| last1 = Misra | first1 = B. M. | last2 = Kupitz | first2 = J.| bibcode = 2004Desal.166....1M}}</ref> [[File:Shevchenko BN350 desalinati.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[BN-350 reactor|Shevchenko BN-350]], a former nuclear-heated desalination unit in Kazakhstan]] Today trend for dual-purpose plants na hybrid system, where water from reverse osmosis dey mix with water from thermal distillation. So dem dey combine two or more desalination methods with power production. Example dey Saudi Arabia like [[Jeddah]] and [[Yanbu]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0011-9164(04)00151-1| title = Hybrid systems in seawater desalination – practical design aspects, present status and development perspectives| journal = Desalination| volume = 164| page = 1| year = 2004| last1 = Ludwig | first1 = H. | issue = 1| bibcode = 2004Desal.164....1L}}</ref> Normal US military supercarrier fit use nuclear power produce about {{convert|1500000|L|abbr=on}} of water per day through desalination.<ref>Tom Harris (August 29, 2002) [http://science.howstuffworks.com/aircraft-carrier2.htm How Aircraft Carriers Work]. Howstuffworks.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011.</ref> === Alternatives to desalination === Better water conservation and efficiency still be the cheapest solution for places wey fit improve how dem dey use water.<ref>[[Peter Gleick|Gleick, Peter H.]], Dana Haasz, Christine Henges-Jeck, Veena Srinivasan, Gary Wolff, Katherine Kao Cushing, and Amardip Mann. (November 2003.) [http://www.pacinst.org/reports/urban_usage/waste_not_want_not_full_report.pdf "Waste not, want not: The potential for urban water conservation in California."] (Website). ''[[Pacific Institute]]''. Retrieved September 20, 2007.</ref> Wastewater reuse also get many benefits pass desalinating salty water,<ref>Cooley, Heather, [[Peter Gleick|Peter H. Gleick]], and Gary Wolff. (June 2006.) ''[[Pacific Institute]]''. Retrieved September 20, 2007.</ref> although e still dey use desalination membranes sometimes.<ref name="50years">{{cite journal | last=Warsinger | first=David | title=Desalination Innovations Needed to Ensure Clean Water for the Next 50 Years | journal=The Bridge | publisher=National Academy of Engineering | volume=50 (S) | year=2020 }}</ref> Rainwater harvesting and storm water capture also help reduce pressure on groundwater.<ref>[[Peter Gleick|Gleick, Peter H.]], Heather Cooley, David Groves (September 2005). [http://pacinst.org/reports/california_water_2030/ca_water_2030.pdf "California water 2030: An efficient future."]. ''[[Pacific Institute]]''. Retrieved September 20, 2007.</ref> Another alternative wey people propose for US Southwest na import bulk water from water-rich regions using tanker ships or pipelines. But this idea no popular politically, especially for Canada, where trade restriction follow NAFTA water export debate.<ref>[http://www.sunbeltwater.com/docs.shtml Sun Belt Inc. Legal Documents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218135610/http://www.sunbeltwater.com/docs.shtml |date=February 18, 2010 }}. Sunbeltwater.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011.</ref> California water agencies recommend say urban water suppliers should reduce indoor water use per person to {{convert|55|USgal|L|abbr=off}} per day by 2023, then 47 gallons by 2025, and 42 gallons from 2030 onward.<ref>State Agencies Recommend Indoor Residential Water Use Standard to Legislature, California Department of Water Resources, November 30, 2021, [https://water.ca.gov/News/News-Releases/2021/Nov-21/State-Agencies-Recommend-Indoor-Residential-Water-Use-Standard Original], [https://web.archive.org/web/20211202140532/https://water.ca.gov/News/News-Releases/2021/Nov-21/State-Agencies-Recommend-Indoor-Residential-Water-Use-Standard Archive]</ref><ref>[https://www.sacbee.com/news/california/water-and-drought/article239028703.html Myth about huge California fines for shower and laundry usage won't die. Here's what's true], The Sacramento Bee, January 8, 2020</ref><ref>[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/marin-county-california-water-restrictions-drought/ Some in California have to limit their daily water usage to 55 gallons. Here's what that means for everyday activities], CBS News, December 8, 2021</ref> == Costs == Many things dey affect desalination cost: plant size, technology type, location, water source, labour, energy price, financing, and waste brine disposal. Sea water desalination normally cost pass fresh river or groundwater, reuse water, and conservation methods, but sometimes no alternative dey. In 2013, cost range be US$0.45 to US$1.00 per m³. Energy alone fit take more than half of total cost, so if energy price change, total cost go also change.<ref name="Zhang 2012">{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269694158 |last=Zhang|first=S.X.|author2=V. Babovic |title=A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty|journal=Journal of Hydroinformatics|volume=14|pages=13–29|date=2012|issue=1 |doi=10.2166/hydro.2011.078|bibcode=2012JHyin..14...13Z |doi-access=free}}</ref> In developing countries, untreated fresh water fit cost reach US$5 per cubic metre.<ref>[http://www.ipsnews.net/2008/08/development-somalia-finding-water-in-mogadishu/ "Finding Water in Mogadishu"]''IPS news item 2008''</ref> Since 1975, desalination technology don improve well well, so cost of making 1 cubic meter of freshwater from seawater drop from about $1.10 (year 2000) to around $0.50 today. Energy efficiency improvement na major reason for this reduction.<ref name="x074">{{cite web | last=Sisson | first=Patrick | title=Water, hold the salt | website=Sherwood News | date=November 11, 2024 | url=https://sherwood.news/world/desalination-billion-dollar-industry/ | access-date=November 16, 2024}}</ref> But desalination still fit put pressure on electricity grids, especially for countries wey no get enough energy. Example be Cyprus, where desalination take about 5% of national electricity use.<ref name="x074" /> Global desalination market worth about $20 billion in 2023, and e fit double by 2032. Capacity also grow from 27 million m³/day in 2003 to 99 million m³/day in 2023.<ref name="x074" /> class="wikitable" |+Cost Comparison of Desalination Methods !Method !Cost (US$/liter) |- |Passive solar (30.42% energy efficient)<ref name="Tiwari2006">{{Cite conference|last1=Tiwari|first1=Anil Kr.|last2=Tiwari|first2=G. N.|date=January 1, 2006|title=Evaluating the Performance of Single Slope Passive Solar Still for Different Slope of Cover and Water Depths by Thermal Modeling: In Moderate Climatic Condition|conference=ASME 2006 International Solar Energy Conference |pages=545–553|publisher=ASMEDC|doi=10.1115/isec2006-99057|isbn=0-7918-4745-4}}</ref> !0.034 |- |Passive solar (improved single-slope, India)<ref name="Tiwari2006" /> !0.024 |- |Passive solar (improved double slope, India)<ref name="Tiwari2006" /> !0.007 |- |Multi Stage Flash (MSF)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://solarmagazine.com/no-batteries-needed-low-cost-solar-desalination-system-green-namibia-desert-coast/|title=No Batteries Needed: Can Low-Cost Solar Desalination System "Green" Namibia's Desert Coast?|last=Andrew Burger|date=June 20, 2019|website=Solar Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=April 5, 2020}}</ref> !< 0.001 |- |Reverse Osmosis (Concentrated solar power)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-05/s-htw051618.php|title=How the world could have 100 percent solar desalination|website=EurekAlert!|language=en|access-date=April 5, 2020}}</ref> !0.0008 |- |Reverse Osmosis (Photovoltaic power)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alsheghri|first1=Ammar|last2=Sharief|first2=Saad Asadullah|last3=Rabbani|first3=Shahid|last4=Aitzhan|first4=Nurzhan Z.|date=August 1, 2015|title=Design and Cost Analysis of a Solar Photovoltaic Powered Reverse Osmosis Plant for Masdar Institute|journal=Energy Procedia|series=Clean, Efficient and Affordable Energy for a Sustainable Future: The 7th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2015)|language=en|volume=75|pages=319–324|doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.365|issn=1876-6102|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015EnPro..75..319A }}</ref> !0.000825 |} Desalinated Water Cost<br />US$/person/day - US - Europe - Africa - UN recommended minimum } Desalination still dey control pressure, temperature and brine level well well to make process efficient. Nuclear-powered desalination also fit work for large scale systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf71.html |title=Nuclear Desalination |publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]] |date=January 2010 |access-date=February 1, 2010 |archive-date=December 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219212254/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf71.html }}</ref><ref>[[Maude Barlow|Barlow, Maude]], and Tony Clarke, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100429154115/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20020902/barlow "Who Owns Water?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429154115/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20020902/barlow |date=April 29, 2010 }} ''The Nation'', 2002-09-02, via thenation.com. Retrieved August 20, 2007.</ref> In 2014, desalination plants for Israel (Hadera, Palmahim, Ashkelon, Sorek) dey produce water for less than US$0.40 per m³.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140125031623/http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/1.570374 Over and drought: Why the end of Israel's water shortage is a secret], Haaretz, January 24, 2014</ref> Singapore also dey around US$0.49 per m³ as at 2006.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100324144203/http://www.edie.net/news/news_story.asp?id=11402&channel=0 "Black & Veatch-Designed Desalination Plant Wins Global Water Distinction,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324144203/http://www.edie.net/news/news_story.asp?id=11402&channel=0 |date=March 24, 2010 }} (Press release). Black & Veatch Ltd., via edie.net, May 4, 2006. Retrieved August 20, 2007.</ref> In 2025, China open plant for Rizhao wey cost about RMB 2 (US$0.28 per m³) using waste heat.<ref>{{cite web |title=China launches cheapest desalination plant |url=https://chinaeconomicreview.com/china-launches-cheapest-desalination-plant/ |publisher=China Economic Review |access-date=January 13, 2026 |language=en |date=December 8, 2025}}</ref> == Environmental concerns == === Intake === For United States, EPA dey regulate cooling water intake structures. These intakes fit affect environment because dem dey pull fish, eggs, and small marine life enter system. Some organisms fit die or get injury from heat, chemicals, or physical stress. Big organisms fit also die if dem jam screens for intake point.<ref>[https://www.epa.gov/cooling-water-intakes Water: Cooling Water Intakes (316b)]. water.epa.gov.</ref> Alternative like beach wells dey reduce impact, but dem dey cost more and use more energy.<ref>Cooley, Heather; [[Peter Gleick|Gleick, Peter H.]] and Wolff, Gary (2006) [http://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2015/01/desalination-grain-of-salt.pdf ''Desalination, With a Grain of Salt. A California Perspective''], Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. {{ISBN|1-893790-13-4}}</ref> In Australia, plants like Kwinana, Gold Coast, and Sydney Kurnell dey take water slowly (about {{convert|0.1|m/s|abbr=on}}) so fish fit escape. Kwinana plant alone fit produce about {{convert|140000|m3|abbr=on}} clean water per day.<ref name="npr">Sullivan, Michael (June 18, 2007) [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11134967 "Australia Turns to Desalination Amid Water Shortage"]. NPR.</ref> In 2025, Corpus Christi for Texas cancel big desalination project because of environmental and cost concerns.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Texas Standard for Sept. 4, 2025: Corpus Christi cancels controversial desalination project |url=https://www.texasstandard.org/stories/today-on-texas-standard-september-4-2025/ |access-date=December 10, 2025 |website=Texas Standard |language=en-US}}</ref> === Outflow === {{More citations needed section|date=January 2012}} Desalination dey produce plenty brine, sometimes hot pass normal sea water, plus chemicals from pretreatment and cleaning, including anti-fouling and anti-scaling agents.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambous2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Panagopoulos|first1=Argyris|last2=Haralambous|first2=Katherine-Joanne|date=October 1, 2020|title=Minimal Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) strategies for wastewater management and resource recovery – Analysis, challenges and prospects|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213343720307673|journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|article-number=104418|doi=10.1016/j.jece.2020.104418|s2cid=225309628|issn=2213-3437|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>Greenberg, Joel (March 20, 2014) [http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/03/20/221880/israel-no-longer-worried-about.html "Israel no longer worried about its water supply, thanks to desalination plants"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324202006/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/03/20/221880/israel-no-longer-worried-about.html |date=March 24, 2014 }}, ''[[The McClatchy Company|McClatchy DC]]''</ref> To reduce ocean impact, dem fit dilute brine with cooling water from power plants or wastewater plants. Some systems dey release brine through diffuser pipes wey dey spread am small small into ocean. Zero liquid discharge systems also dey try treat brine before disposal.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambous2020" /><ref>Szeptycki, L., E. Hartge, N. Ajami, A. Erickson, W. N. Heady, L. LaFeir, B. Meister, L. Verdone, and J.R. Koseff (2016). Marine and Coastal Impacts on Ocean Desalination in California. Dialogue report compiled by Water in the West, Center for Ocean Solutions, Monterey Bay Aquarium and The Nature Conservancy, Monterey, CA. https://www.scienceforconservation.org/assets/downloads/Desal_Whitepaper_2016.pdf</ref> Recent global study show say brine from desalination don pass even freshwater wey plants dey produce, around 142 million m³/day. This one dey raise concern about ocean salinity increase and ecosystem damage.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/quenching-humanitys-freshwater-thirst-creates-a-salty-threat |access-date=December 8, 2025 |website=Our World|title=Quenching Humanity's Freshwater Thirst Creates a Salty Threat|date=2019-02-07|last=Jones|first=Edward|first2=Manzoor|last2=Qadir|first3=Vladimir|last3=Smakhtin|publisher=United Nations University}}</ref> New studies also talk about microplastics and chemical residue wey desalination process fit introduce. Even though impact smaller than brine issue, e still show say monitoring and better pretreatment important.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environmental Effects of Desalination {{!}} Pacific Environment Data Portal |url=https://pacific-data.sprep.org/dataset/environmental-effects-desalination |access-date=December 8, 2025 |website=pacific-data.sprep.org}}</ref> Some systems even dey mobile (like ship-based plants) so brine no go concentrate for one place only.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theexplorer.no/solutions/waterfountain-innovative-floating-desalination-system/|title=Innovative floating desalination system|website=www.theexplorer.no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://waterfountain.no/|title=Oisann Engineering|website=Oisann Engineering}}</ref> Brine normally heavy pass seawater, so e dey sink go ocean floor and fit affect ecosystem there. Sometimes people think say dilution solve am, but seasonal ocean layering fit hide real impact. Brine fit travel kilometers far and still affect marine life. Proper design and environmental control fit reduce this risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yolanda Fernández-Torquemada |title=Dispersion of brine discharge from seawater reverse osmosis desalination plants |journal=Desalination and Water Treatment |date=March 16, 2009 |volume=5 |issue=1–3 |pages=137–145 |doi=10.5004/dwt.2009.576 |bibcode=2009DWatT...5..137F |hdl=10045/11309 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panagopoulos|first1=Argyris|last2=Haralambous|first2=Katherine-Joanne|date=December 1, 2020|title=Environmental impacts of desalination and brine treatment – Challenges and mitigation measures|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X20308912|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=161|issue=Pt B|article-number=111773|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111773|pmid=33128985|bibcode=2020MarPB.16111773P |s2cid=226224643|issn=0025-326X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> === Energy use === Di energy wey dem need for desalination for Middle East, wey water shortage dey very serious, dem expect say e go double by 2030. Right now, dis process dey mainly use fossil fuels, wey be over 95% of di energy source. For 2023, desalination use almost half of di residential sector energy for di region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 22, 2024 |title=Energy is vital to a well-functioning water sector – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/commentaries/energy-is-vital-to-a-well-functioning-water-sector |access-date=April 19, 2024 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> Most of di drinking water wey people dey use for Israel, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Kuwait dey come from desalination.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shankar |first1=Priyanka |title=How targeting of desalination plants could disrupt water supply in the Gulf |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/3/8/how-targeting-of-desalination-plants-could-disrupt-water-supply-in-the-gulf |access-date=9 March 2026 |work=Al Jazeera |date=8 March 2026 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Why the Middle East’s Desalination Plants Are Critical |url=https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/iran-war-news-updates-2026/card/why-the-middle-east-s-desalination-plants-are-critical-iPiXNsAQBDn54K38qbVi |access-date=9 March 2026 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=8 March 2026}}</ref> ===Other issues=== Because of how di process be, dem dey need land wey be around 25 acres near shoreline to build di plants.<ref name="Einav">{{cite journal|last1=Einav|first1=Rachel|last2=Harussi|first2=Kobi|last3=Perry|first3=Dan|date=February 2003|title=The footprint of the desalination processes on the environment|journal=Desalination|volume=152|issue=1–3|pages=141–154|doi=10.1016/S0011-9164(02)01057-3|bibcode=2003Desal.152..141E }}</ref> If dem build plant inside land (not near sea), dem go lay pipes go underground make water intake and discharge fit work well.<ref name="Einav" /> But once dem lay di pipes, e fit dey leak enter ground and spoil underground water (aquifers).<ref name="Einav" /> Apart from environmental risk, some desalination plants dey also produce noise wey fit be very loud.<ref name="Einav" /> ==Health aspects== === Iodine deficiency === Desalination dey remove iodine from water and fit increase risk of iodine deficiency sickness. Some Israeli researchers talk say e fit get link between seawater desalination and iodine shortage,<ref>[http://www.agri.huji.ac.il/newsletter/july2014.html "מידעון הפקולטה"]. ''מידעון הפקולטה לחקלאות מזון וסביבה עש רוברט ה סמית''. agri.huji.ac.il. July 2014</ref> dem find say people wey dey drink water wey low iodine dey show deficiency signs<ref>Yaniv Ovadia. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263220648_Estimated_iodine_intake_and_status_in_euthyroid_adults_exposed_to_iodine-poor_water "Estimated iodine intake and status in adults exposed to iodine-poor water"]. ''ResearchGate''.</ref> especially as more seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) water dey enter supply.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.iccidd.org/newsletter/idd_aug13_israel_1.pdf|title=Seawater desalination and iodine deficiency: is there a link?|journal=IDD Newsletter|date=August 2013 |vauthors=Ovadia YS, Troen AM, Gefel D }}</ref> Dem later find possible iodine deficiency disorder for population wey dey depend on desalinated seawater.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Can desalinated seawater contribute to iodine-deficiency disorders? An observation and hypothesis |journal=Public Health Nutrition |first1=Yaniv S|last1=Ovadia |first2=Dov|last2=Gefel |first3=Dorit|last3=Aharoni |first4=Svetlana|last4=Turkot |first5=Shlomo|last5=Fytlovich |first6=Aron M|last6=Troen |date=October 2016 |volume=19 |issue=15 |pages=2808–2817 |doi=10.1017/S1368980016000951 |pmid=27149907|pmc=10271113 |doi-access=free }}</ref> For 2017, Israeli researchers still suggest say heavy use of desalinated water fit relate to iodine deficiency for national level.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jta.org/2017/03/27/news-opinion/israel-middle-east/researchers-find-israeli-children-at-risk-from-iron-deficiency-likely-due-to-desalinated-water|title=Millions of Israeli children said at risk of stunted development, possibly from desalinated water|website=jta.org|access-date=October 22, 2017|date=March 27, 2017}}</ref> Dem find say 62% of school children and 85% of pregnant women for Israel dey below WHO iodine level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://new.huji.ac.il/en/article/34005|title=High burden of Iodine deficiency found in Israel's first national survey – האוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים – The Hebrew University of Jerusalem|website=new.huji.ac.il|access-date=October 22, 2017}}</ref> Dem also talk say reliance on desalinated water, no universal salt iodization program, and increase in thyroid medicine use fit be reasons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ovadia |first1=Yaniv S. |last2=Arbelle |first2=Jonathan E. |last3=Gefel |first3=Dov |last4=Brik |first4=Hadassah |last5=Wolf |first5=Tamar |last6=Nadler |first6=Varda |last7=Hunziker |first7=Sandra |last8=Zimmermann |first8=Michael B. |last9=Troen |first9=Aron M. |date=August 2017 |title=First Israeli National Iodine Survey Demonstrates Iodine Deficiency Among School-Aged Children and Pregnant Women |url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/thy.2017.0251 |journal=Thyroid |language=en |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=1083–1091 |doi=10.1089/thy.2017.0251 |pmid=28657479 |issn=1050-7256|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For di same year, about 50% of total fresh water supply and 80% of domestic and industrial water for Israel come from desalination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.water.gov.il/Hebrew/WaterResources/Desalination/Pages/default.aspx|title=Israeli Water Authority|website=water.gov.il|access-date=October 22, 2017}}</ref> ==Experimental techniques== Other desalination methods include: ===Waste heat=== Thermally-driven desalination technologies dem dey suggest say fit use low-temperature waste heat sources well, because di heat no dey useful for normal industrial process heat but fit work well for desalination.<ref name="WarsingerEntropy" /> Diesel generators for remote areas dey also produce electricity, but about 40–50% of energy come out as waste heat through exhaust.<ref name="WarsingerEntropy" /> If dem connect membrane distillation system to diesel exhaust, dem fit reuse di heat for desalination. Dis one even cool di diesel generator and improve efficiency, so e fit increase electricity output too. Dis kind system fit work almost without extra energy demand. One example plant start work for Maldives by Dutch company Aquaver for March 2014.<ref>[http://www.eip-water.eu/desalination-plant-powered-waste-heat-opens-maldives/ "Desalination plant powered by waste heat opens in Maldives"] ''European Innovation Partnerships (EIP) news''. Retrieved March 18, 2014</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140318193613/http://www.desalination.com/wdr/50/8/island-finally-gets-its-own-supply "Island finally gets its own water supply"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318193613/http://www.desalination.com/wdr/50/8/island-finally-gets-its-own-supply |date=March 18, 2014 }}, ''Global Water Intelligence'', February 24, 2014. Retrieved March 18, 2014</ref> ===Low-temperature thermal=== Dis method come from ocean thermal energy conversion research. E dey use low pressure to make water boil even for normal ambient temperature. System dey use pump create low pressure environment where water fit boil with temperature difference of {{convert|8|-|10|C-change}}. Cold seawater from deep ocean (up to {{convert|600|m|abbr=on}}) dey use to condense steam, and di result na clean fresh water. Di system also fit use waste warm water from power plants.<ref name="isope1">{{cite web|last=Sistla|first=Phanikumar V.S.|title=Low Temperature Thermal DesalinbationPLants|url=http://www.isope.org/publications/proceedings/ISOPE_OMS/OMS%202009/papers/M09-83Sistla.pdf|work=Proceedings of the Eighth (2009) ISOPE Ocean Mining Symposium, Chennai, India, September 20–24, 2009|publisher=International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers|access-date=June 22, 2010|display-authors=etal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004094556/http://www.isope.org/publications/proceedings/ISOPE_OMS/OMS%202009/papers/M09-83Sistla.pdf|archive-date=October 4, 2011}}</ref> Test dem do am for US and Japan. Japan Saga University test spray-flash system.<ref>Haruo Uehara and Tsutomu Nakaoka [https://web.archive.org/web/20120322075415/http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp/VWF/general-review_e.html Development and Prospective of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and Spray Flash Evaporator Desalination] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322075415/http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp/VWF/general-review_e.html |date=March 22, 2012 }}. ioes.saga-u.ac.jp</ref> For Hawaii, National Energy Laboratory test plant wey produce water and power using temperature difference of {{Convert|20|C-change}}. India NIOT start LTTD work for 2004, and first plant open for Kavaratti, Lakshadweep for 2005 with capacity {{convert|100000|L|abbr=on}}/day.<ref name="irc">{{Cite web |last=Nair |first=N.B. |date=November 24, 2018 |title=Indian Scientists Develop World's First Low Temperature Thermal Desalination Plant |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/indian-scientists-develop-worlds-first-low-temperature-thermal-desalination-plant/articleshow/129082227.html |access-date=January 1, 2019 |website=Indiatimes |language=en}}</ref> For 2007, dem build floating plant for Chennai wey fit produce {{convert|1000000|L|abbr=on}}/day.<ref name="isope1" /> ===Thermoionic process=== For October 2009, Saltworks Technologies announce system wey use solar or heat to move ionic current remove sodium and chlorine ions.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/sciencetechnology/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14743791 Current thinking], ''The Economist'', October 29, 2009</ref> ===Evaporation and condensation for crops=== Seawater greenhouse dey use natural evaporation and condensation inside greenhouse powered by solar energy to grow crops for dry coastal land. === Ion concentration polarisation === For 2022, MIT researchers develop portable filterless desalination system using ion concentration polarisation and electrodialysis. E fit remove salt and suspended solids.<ref name="YoonKwonKangBrackHan2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Yoon |first1=Junghyo |last2=Kwon |first2=Hyukjin J. |last3=Kang |first3=SungKu |last4=Brack |first4=Eric |last5=Han |first5=Jongyoon |date=May 17, 2022 |title=Portable Seawater Desalination System for Generating Drinkable Water in Remote Locations |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c08466 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=10 |pages=6733–6743 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c08466 |pmid=35420021 |bibcode=2022EnST...56.6733Y |s2cid=248155686 |issn=0013-936X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Di device small like suitcase (42 × 33.5 × 19 cm) and weight 9.25 kg.<ref name="YoonKwonKangBrackHan2022" /> E dey work automatically and fit run with solar panel. But e only produce 0.33 liters per minute and fit get fouling issues.<ref name="MIT2022">{{Cite web |title=From seawater to drinking water, with the push of a button |url=https://news.mit.edu/2022/portable-desalination-drinking-water-0428 |access-date=August 3, 2022 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=April 28, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ===Other approaches=== Adsorption-based desalination dey use materials like silica gel to absorb moisture.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Study of Silica Gel Adsorption Desalination System|url=https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/82463/8/02whole.pdf|work=Jun Wei WU|access-date=November 3, 2016}}</ref> ==== Forward osmosis ==== One company Modern Water PLC use forward osmosis and run some plants already.<ref>{{cite journal|title=FO plant completes 1-year of operation|url=http://www.modernwater.co.uk/files/files/WDR%20-%2044.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222200124/http://www.modernwater.co.uk/files/files/WDR%20-%2044.pdf|archive-date=December 22, 2024|access-date=May 28, 2011|journal=Water Desalination Report|date=November 15, 2010|pages=2–3}}</ref> ==== Hydrogel based desalination ==== [[File:TOC new.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Scheme of the desalination machine: the desalination box of volume <math>V_{box}</math> contains a gel of volume <math>V_{gel}</math> which is separated by a sieve from the outer solution volume <math>V_{out} = V_{box} - V_{gel}</math>. The box is connected to two big tanks with high and low salinity by two taps which can be opened and closed as desired. The chain of buckets expresses the fresh water consumption followed by refilling the low-salinity reservoir by salt water.<ref name="RudBorisovKosovan2018">{{cite journal|title=Thermodynamic model for a reversible desalination cycle using weak polyelectrolyte hydrogels|journal=Desalination|volume=442|page=32|doi=10.1016/j.desal.2018.05.002 |ref=Rud2018|year=2018|last1=Rud|first1=Oleg|last2=Borisov|first2=Oleg|last3=Košovan|first3=Peter|bibcode=2018Desal.442...32R |s2cid=103725391}}</ref>]] Method dey work by putting hydrogel inside salt water. Gel go absorb water but leave salt behind. Dem fit squeeze water come out through filter. When system dey closed or open, e change salt concentration and behave like thermodynamic cycle like Carnot cycle.<ref name="RudBorisovKosovan2018" /> Because no membrane dey involved, e fit compete with reverse osmosis and no dey easily affected by water quality changes.<ref name="RudBorisovKosovan2018" /> ==== Small-scale solar ==== US, France and UAE dey develop solar desalination systems.<ref>[http://cleantechnica.com/2015/01/25/uae-france-announce-partnership-jointly-fund-renewable-energy-projects/ UAE & France Announce Partnership To Jointly Fund Renewable Energy Projects], Clean Technica, January 25, 2015</ref> AquaDania system fit produce 40–60 liters per day using solar collector.<ref>[http://www.barrymansfield.com/pdf/Tapping%20A%20Market%20CNBC%20European%20Business.pdf Tapping the Market], CNBC European Business, October 1, 2008</ref> For California, WaterFX dey develop solar method to treat salty groundwater and runoff water for reuse.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Peters|first1=Adele|title=Can This Solar Desalination Startup Solve California Water Woes?|url=http://www.fastcoexist.com/3026234/can-this-solar-desalination-startup-solve-california-water-woes|work=Fast Company|access-date=February 24, 2015|date=February 10, 2014}}</ref> === Energy-based desalination === Renewable energy integration for desalination dey important to reduce fossil fuel dependence. Some plants dey use solar, wind, geothermal and wave energy especially for remote areas.<ref>Ghaffour, N., Bundschuh, J., Mahmoudi, H., & Goosen, M. F. (2015). Renewable energy-driven desalination technologies: A comprehensive review on challenges and potential applications. ''Desalination, 356'', 94–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.024</ref> ==== Solar-powered desalination ==== Solar desalination fit be thermal or PV-based. Thermal one use heat for distillation systems like MED, MSF or membrane distillation. PV one use electricity from sunlight to run reverse osmosis systems. Some modern systems dey use storage materials and nanofluids to improve efficiency.<ref>Al-Karaghouli, A., & Kazmerski, L. L. (2013). Energy consumption and water production cost of conventional and renewable-energy-powered desalination processes. ''Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 24'', 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.057</ref> ==== Systems powered by wind and hybrid ==== Wind energy fit power desalination plants directly or through electricity generation. Wind-solar hybrid systems dey tested to balance weather changes. For Spain, integrated wind-PV system reduce cost by about 40% compared to grid system.<ref>Davies, P. A. (2010). A solar-assisted heat pump sea water desalination system. ''Desalination, 250''(1), 402–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2009.09.073</ref> ==== Application of geothermal and waste heat treatment ==== Geothermal heat and industrial waste heat fit power desalination systems for better efficiency. Iceland and Turkey dey use geothermal for MED systems. Waste heat from engines and factories fit also support membrane distillation systems.<ref>Bouguecha, S. A., & Dhahbi, M. (2003). Solar-assisted membrane distillation desalination system. ''Desalination, 156''(1–3), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(03)00333-8</ref> ==== Technological innovations ==== New materials like nanostructured membranes dey improve efficiency and reduce energy demand. Capacitive deionization and photothermal systems dey also develop to use sunlight directly for desalination.<ref>Shatat, M., Riffat, S. B., & Powell, R. (2013). Potential of solar desalination in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries. ''Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 28'', 246–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.07.042</ref> ==== Economic and environmental implications ==== Even though renewable desalination systems cost more to build, dem dey reduce long-term environmental damage. Some commercial plants for Middle East, Australia and US dey already use renewable energy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 14, 2023 |title=Veolia inaugurates the largest solar power plant on a desalination plant in the Middle East |url=https://www.veolia.com/en/our-media/news/veolia-inaugurates-largest-solar-power-plant-desalination-plant-middle-east |access-date=December 6, 2025 |website=Veolia |language=en}}</ref> Studies show say dem fit reduce carbon emissions up to 80%. Cost of water from some solar systems dey drop below $1 per cubic meter.<ref>Kalogirou, S. A. (2005). Seawater desalination using renewable energy sources. ''Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 31''(3), 242–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2005.03.001</ref> ==== Applications in social and regional contexts ==== For remote and disaster areas, renewable desalination dey very useful. Portable solar units dey help give clean water from seawater or brackish water with low maintenance. Some projects dey already run for India and California.<ref>Ali, M. T., Fath, H. E. S., & Armstrong, P. R. (2011). A comprehensive techno-economical review of indirect solar desalination. ''Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15''(8), 4187–4199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.06.006</ref><ref>World Bank. (2020). Renewable Energy Desalination: An Emerging Solution to Close the Water Gap in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank Report. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/12219</ref> ==== Future outlook ==== Desalination get big future potential as countries dey look sustainable water solutions. New technologies like AI optimization, energy storage and graphene membranes go improve efficiency more. Experts expect say by 2035, about 20% of desalination capacity go come from renewable energy.<ref>Elimelech, M., & Phillip, W. A. (2011). The future of seawater desalination: Energy, technology, and the environment. ''Science, 333''(6043), 712–717. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1200488</ref> ==== Passarell ==== Passarell process dey use low atmospheric pressure instead of heat to distill water. Vapor dey compressed and condensed using compressor system. Compression increase efficiency and recycle energy inside system.<ref>[http://www.waterdesalination.com/theory.htm The "Passarell" Process]. Waterdesalination.com (November 16, 2004). Retrieved May 14, 2012.</ref> Heat from compressed vapor dey reused to vaporize incoming water, making system more efficient.<ref>[http://www.waterdesalination.com/theory.htm The "Passarell" Process]. Waterdesalination.com (November 16, 2004). Retrieved May 14, 2012.</ref> ==== Geothermal ==== Geothermal energy fit power desalination well. For many places, geothermal desalination dey cheaper and better than using scarce groundwater or surface water.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} ==== Nanotechnology ==== Nanotube membranes fit allow more water pass through and reduce energy needed for reverse osmosis systems.<ref name="LLNL">{{cite press release |title = Nanotube membranes offer possibility of cheaper desalination |publisher = [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] Public Affairs |date = May 18, 2006 |url = http://www.llnl.gov/pao/news/news_releases/2006/NR-06-05-06.html |access-date = September 7, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061001091253/http://www.llnl.gov/pao/news/news_releases/2006/NR-06-05-06.html |archive-date = October 1, 2006 }}</ref> Some nano-composite membranes fit remove contaminants down to very small level and tolerate high salt concentration.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cao|first=Liwei|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US8222346/en?oq=Dais+Analytic+desalination |title=Patent US8222346 – Block copolymers and method for making same |access-date=July 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Wnek|first=Gary|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US6383391/en?oq=Dais+Analytic+desalination |title=Patent US6383391 – Water-and ion-conducting membranes and uses thereof |access-date=July 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Cao|first=Liwei|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/dais-analytic-corporation-announces-product-sale-to-asia-functional-waste-water-treatment-pilot-and-key-infrastructure-appointments-210236821.html |title= Dais Analytic Corporation Announces Product Sale to Asia, Functional Waste Water Treatment Pilot, and Key Infrastructure Appointments |agency=PR Newswire |date=June 5, 2013 |access-date=July 9, 2013}}</ref> ==== Biomimesis ==== Biomimetic membranes dey try copy how nature dey filter water.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sandia.gov/water/desal/research-dev/membrane-tech.html |title=Sandia National Labs: Desalination and Water Purification: Research and Development |publisher=sandia.gov |year=2007 |access-date=July 9, 2013}}</ref> ==== Electrochemical ==== For 2008, Siemens Water Technologies introduce system wey use electric field reduce energy needed for desalination.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090414025925/http://news.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne%2BNews/Singapore/Story/A1Story20080623-72473.html Team wins $4m grant for breakthrough technology in seawater desalination] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414025925/http://news.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne%2BNews/Singapore/Story/A1Story20080623-72473.html |date=April 14, 2009 }}, The Straits Times, June 23, 2008</ref> By 2012, dem already dey test am for Singapore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mining.com/new-desalination-process-uses-50-less-energy-78254/|title=New desalination process uses 50% less energy {{!}} MINING.com|date=September 6, 2012|website=MINING.com|language=en-US|access-date=June 11, 2016}}</ref> ==== Electrokinetic shocks ==== Dis method use shock waves to remove salt without membrane. Ions react and form calcium carbonate wey drop out, leaving clean water.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://microfluidics.stanford.edu/Publications/ITP/Shkolnikov%202012%20Desalination%20and%20hydrogen,%20chlorine,%20and%20sodium%20hydroxide%20production%20via%20electrophoretic%20ion%20exchange%20and%20precipitation.pdf |title=Desalination and hydrogen, chlorine, and sodium hydroxide production via electrophoretic ion exchange and precipitation |volume=14 |issue=32 |pages=11534–45 |first1=Viktor |last1=Shkolnikov |journal=Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics |date=April 5, 2012 |access-date=July 9, 2013 |doi=10.1039/c2cp42121f |pmid=22806549 |last2=Bahga |first2=Supreet S. |last3=Santiago |first3=Juan G. |bibcode=2012PCCP...1411534S |archive-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208155008/http://microfluidics.stanford.edu/Publications/ITP/Shkolnikov%202012%20Desalination%20and%20hydrogen,%20chlorine,%20and%20sodium%20hydroxide%20production%20via%20electrophoretic%20ion%20exchange%20and%20precipitation.pdf }}</ref> ==== Temperature swing solvent extraction ==== TSSE dey use solvent wey change behavior with temperature to remove salt. E fit remove up to 98.4% salt from brine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/scientists-discover-game-changing-way-to-remove-salt-from-water/|title=Scientists discover a game-changing way to remove salt from water|first=Claire|last=Reilly|website=CNET}}</ref> ==== Wave energy ==== Wave energy fit power small offshore desalination systems wey fit produce 30–50 m³/day without external power.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blain |first=Loz |date=November 21, 2022 |title=Wave-powered buoys vastly reduce the ecological cost of desalination |url=https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/oneka-wave-power-desalination/ |access-date=November 25, 2022 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref> == Use around the world == Saudi Arabia dey produce about 7.9 million cubic meters of desalinated water every day, which be about 22% of global production (2021 estimate).<ref>{{Cite web |last=n.a. |date=May 31, 2022 |title=Saudi Arabia announces new water projects worth $667 million |url=https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/smart-water-magazine/saudi-arabia-announces-new-water-projects-worth-667-million |access-date=April 19, 2024 |website=Smart Water Magazine |language=en}}</ref> {{main|Desalination by country}} Perth start reverse osmosis desalination plant for 2006.<ref>[http://www.water-technology.net/projects/perth/ Perth Seawater Desalination Plant, Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO), Kwinana]. Water Technology. Retrieved March 20, 2011.</ref> Sydney plant dey operate, and Wonthaggi plant dey build for Victoria. Wind farm dey support Sydney plant energy use.<ref>...</ref> Carlsbad plant for California dey supply water for about 100,000 homes.<ref>...</ref> Israel, Singapore, China, India, Pakistan and Australia all dey use desalination small-small for water supply.<ref>...</ref> As of 2008, over 13,000 desalination plants dey worldwide producing more than 12 billion gallons per day.<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120053698876396483?mod=googlenews_wsj Water, Water, Everywhere...], The Wall. St Journal, January 17, 2008.</ref> Jebel Ali complex for UAE na one of the biggest desalination hubs for world, producing 2.2 million cubic meters per day.<ref>{{cite press release |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=DEWA's Jebel Ali Power Plant and Water Desalination Complex enters Guinness World Records |url=https://mediaoffice.ae/en/news/2022/October/16-10/DEWAs-Jebel-Ali-Power-Plant |location= |publisher=Media Office, Government of Dubai |agency= |date=October 16, 2022 |access-date=December 15, 2022}}</ref> ==In nature== Water cycle itself dey naturally desalinate water through evaporation over oceans. Sea ice also dey form with low salt content. Some seabirds get special gland wey dem dey use remove salt from seawater, then dem dey sneeze am out.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Proctor|first1=Noble S.|last2=Lynch|first2=Patrick J.|title=Manual of Ornithology|isbn=978-0-300-07619-6|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Mangroves, willow trees and reeds also fit absorb salt and help clean water in natural or artificial wetlands. ==Society and culture== Even though desalination get environmental and cost issues, public support for am dey high in many areas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Yazan |last2=Ismail |first2=Roqaya A. |last3=Ogungbenro |first3=Adetola |last4=Pankratz |first4=Tom |last5=Banat |first5=Fawzi |last6=Arafat |first6=Hassan A. |title=The sociopolitical factors impacting the adoption and proliferation of desalination: A critical review |journal=Desalination |date=January 15, 2021 |volume=498 |article-number=114798 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2020.114798|bibcode=2021Desal.49814798I |s2cid=228881693 }}</ref> For Southern California, about 71.9% people support building desalination plants.<ref name="Heck" /> Places wey water scarcity high dey show more support, while places wey water still plenty dey show less interest.<ref name="Heck" /> ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=18em}} Metal–organic framework Atmospheric water generator Dewvaporation Flexible barge Peak water Pumpable ice technology Soil desalination model Soil salinity Soil salinity and groundwater model {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== International Desalination and Reuse Association European Desalination Society Working principles in desalination systems Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources <references /> 8kaeldrlv6tczdt481769jxizahpd0v 0 27466 101828 2026-06-11T14:17:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101828 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]] q9nniruxy8hr3e6891tmnqsq5ndogbb 101829 101828 2026-06-11T14:21:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101829 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]] c5l9etsehzbxsprxt1ob0sx5rpyhp93 101860 101829 2026-06-11T21:57:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101860 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. == References == kwcvy8y604u37jdzy55kr5doobxgxk5 101861 101860 2026-06-11T21:58:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101861 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". == References == gev41nyngolvgpoqj3bbp52aqukw0t1 101862 101861 2026-06-11T21:59:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101862 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. == References == 7zcww3v9syhhj1hnzxni0z3ln53k8cs 101863 101862 2026-06-11T22:00:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. == References == pe64mn3yaq5g9agfke1pw7aknprwqro 101864 101863 2026-06-11T22:01:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101864 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. == References == 4ql3syagpzsyirl2z5bttyq71lytstz 101865 101864 2026-06-11T22:05:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101865 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. == References == 0irvix7nlc4zgqjhed0kh9rhgrh2b70 101866 101865 2026-06-11T22:06:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101866 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. == References == klc07bixa2bc8arfyf1e0wa87krvcmy 101868 101866 2026-06-11T22:07:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101868 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. == References == j6fpf1p8cz72i9wa7zep4ivb3my8i62 101869 101868 2026-06-11T22:08:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101869 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == == References == ruqcobm9cmj751x0s7q735y2vc9f82h 101870 101869 2026-06-11T22:09:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101870 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. == References == 9rbpsy8s4gx7lu4ab7nwygmufb0kdew 101871 101870 2026-06-11T22:10:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101871 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. == References == dtp2v4f8ktbzwl3av4w46l5xbvh4doe 101872 101871 2026-06-11T22:11:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101872 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. == References == g944nzx009vq0t82nkn9z7c9gp1sh48 101873 101872 2026-06-11T22:12:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101873 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. == References == 5ei2h0tvedf8mu4nms2f2bz8n073woz 101874 101873 2026-06-11T22:14:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101874 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. == References == dvo98dxr1uy0kt2orkwuv1w8fnioior 101875 101874 2026-06-11T22:15:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101875 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. == References == 440z5obsx0wzkwfq6rvm7uowhot0sfi 101876 101875 2026-06-11T22:16:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101876 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. == References == 0qv1kegtdmsk8ehb6oouttkht4x72ff 101877 101876 2026-06-11T22:17:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101877 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. == References == 1yb6s0wvmhranozoxgvvac0q2sa72l8 101878 101877 2026-06-11T22:21:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101878 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. == References == c73wg0lkcmux012wpdoh5sm78nc4sic 101879 101878 2026-06-11T22:22:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101879 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. == References == stsw0i2lnahykzkyqitqj3q8yj8fmp2 101880 101879 2026-06-11T22:23:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101880 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. == References == 2tefk2tob81frvaf8e4h6n20tv87aqa 101881 101880 2026-06-11T22:24:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101881 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. == References == 4ud78stbx1fhg394q7q0ymnbnpgu95m 101882 101881 2026-06-11T22:25:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101882 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. == References == 11y04mev4zh7pmf4syxgjit3grk8a97 101884 101882 2026-06-11T22:25:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101884 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. == References == 1hv8yfthsjp8mhmvaob0u2dmcccto68 101885 101884 2026-06-11T22:27:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101885 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. == References == log3pidu1ynku1pt0lozyluagkh1006 101887 101885 2026-06-11T22:27:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101887 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. == References == gl23dqqzgqox4drgsvibv0n596l2txo 101888 101887 2026-06-11T22:29:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101888 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. == References == tif7pbcqnr9xje64pu78eovjbzw1pdn 101889 101888 2026-06-11T22:30:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101889 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. == References == r49y4r244ezhrm7vzjrthdguyamczda 101890 101889 2026-06-11T22:30:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101890 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == References == cjardbjvfsj569lqkc5q3124q0ctuht 101891 101890 2026-06-11T22:31:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101891 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. == References == j0uk3zpvdn4idnmodc1s64ohr90939d 101892 101891 2026-06-11T22:32:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101892 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. == References == lmkcqpzc0fr2n9098t64oyelpmh0vk1 101893 101892 2026-06-11T22:33:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101893 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. == References == ig36nht1p2p3rnwlvm19rmg9cjb92vs 101894 101893 2026-06-11T22:33:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101894 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == References == jlorasmzlpmqghfnywn2bu2azias2ie 101895 101894 2026-06-11T22:34:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101895 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. == References == 8xps0xunz9mm4bgo2yqzwu4rnwk6e6o 101896 101895 2026-06-11T22:35:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101896 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. == References == fxy414r2xk16e2z3q59y8sdoku221ic 101898 101896 2026-06-11T22:35:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101898 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. == References == ey7p464k4ld1in4rec0t01fj367q99i 101899 101898 2026-06-11T22:37:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101899 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. == References == 0def446gum0ooj4f240p7dw0k38764m 101900 101899 2026-06-11T22:38:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. == References == qom9r9l2abbhtpdlox0vm2gtrq0ukwn 101901 101900 2026-06-11T22:38:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101901 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. == References == 9umytfl26phvzy19prw5i1kgozn1da1 101902 101901 2026-06-11T22:39:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101902 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. == References == h73fumxpbfgsr81dfhigh5v5kdp7lkv 101903 101902 2026-06-11T22:40:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101903 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == References == cgtg3r5exzeukfj1z282m7mns6vg9w7 101904 101903 2026-06-11T22:40:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101904 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. == References == 1a3rvufe1wph2yg1tm83irdexmbvr2p 101905 101904 2026-06-11T22:41:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101905 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == References == l2bsy1y12ycutx965vhqtj4xx75ifhk 101906 101905 2026-06-11T22:42:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101906 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: == References == jc28f6lqexfr1kjpn285vahnbeknl7g 101908 101906 2026-06-11T22:43:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101908 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. == References == tored9gx7i6t2l7fd7coa3f7xx2zsck 101909 101908 2026-06-11T22:43:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101909 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. == References == ag0ytrwsyqa2y7ei3ura8xh4dvxo3hj 101910 101909 2026-06-11T22:44:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101910 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. == References == 54nc5z24kwvb3beblxute2skjzm6k2q 101911 101910 2026-06-11T22:45:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101911 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: == References == ke1q8vuukfgpqipug1c8d4tehcqust5 101913 101911 2026-06-11T22:46:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101913 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) == References == elolj6b5u6pie62fxhrwhawfj5g8k6e 101914 101913 2026-06-11T22:47:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101914 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) == References == 34bnj4h2541ctwe7fhix59wmye8bok6 101915 101914 2026-06-11T22:47:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101915 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) == References == 5rta49ha64fodszn67cfmz7ydy1s7jj 101916 101915 2026-06-11T22:48:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101916 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) == References == 35ek14vf5xzajsx2oboud8ut3d9wq7s 101917 101916 2026-06-11T22:49:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101917 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) == References == 49h2a30cquj4r818ut8stxolz4f1cnn 101919 101917 2026-06-11T22:50:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101919 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) == References == ettecauqxaivownet55egymnuqzex4z 101920 101919 2026-06-11T22:51:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101920 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' == References == nf3zrhzr35mlrk9on6n7rt54r0t5ar1 101921 101920 2026-06-11T22:52:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101921 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. == References == 2mj2qc5qohj07guz3djsl53f6t9ypcv 101922 101921 2026-06-11T22:52:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101922 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. == References == sz2bfy99a7ib2sz7733uxv8koq8hdm0 101923 101922 2026-06-11T22:53:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101923 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. == References == 5k4xy0ooert3p13kvmh5f861gg8lk58 101925 101923 2026-06-11T22:53:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101925 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. == References == c42do2s92465rmwiv6yrkrjekmzd9vp 101926 101925 2026-06-11T22:54:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101926 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. == References == sk2zq6t4lmsajtpvaay8bjxgdum5fas 101927 101926 2026-06-11T22:55:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101927 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. == References == 5ga8b0u2voppbb8aaokt7prsxjc3ecv 101928 101927 2026-06-11T22:55:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101928 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. == References == 4ml8yuo0o4gka1hv5tunamk9741xz0d 101929 101928 2026-06-11T22:56:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101929 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). == References == 73zebyr16q70u0smobl82p8yqiek1vf 101930 101929 2026-06-11T22:56:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101930 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. == References == t01yehklpmmzf3dm9wsjwkf0qc0ovqe 101931 101930 2026-06-11T22:57:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101931 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. == References == 5tdxt1l5w2atvr60nj1oqpievdkwuud 101932 101931 2026-06-11T22:58:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101932 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. == References == 3kyrp0ewo7ecu7x18n87ub6s9sjccfe 101933 101932 2026-06-11T22:59:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101933 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. == References == iavd7jg3h9rprhhkl7phkpj7atibqk5 101934 101933 2026-06-11T23:00:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101934 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. == References == skqyiz9mv7t07bhwjs3tvqt3264xv3i 101935 101934 2026-06-11T23:00:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101935 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. == References == m7a5i4d9gr2ru3oavrtdugl6loqr6ts 101937 101935 2026-06-11T23:01:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101937 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). == References == 9usc9f949jpz6jambfevlcdkbxhms8h 101938 101937 2026-06-11T23:02:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101938 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. == References == l6scpz4d3fwta1698jv6kg89ynqf6mv 101939 101938 2026-06-11T23:02:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101939 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. == References == o66l6tjcd6g2p7f9byezkr84mrfof8u 101940 101939 2026-06-11T23:03:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101940 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == References == t9dh9z6gxp781fs1zxyg6hfmv6n3q4o 101941 101940 2026-06-11T23:04:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101941 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. == References == caaeopv26oqgfymuib9c8hysbe8jgcg 101942 101941 2026-06-11T23:04:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101942 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == References == isx88o0bpbka0kyixsysb9ug7q8r855 101943 101942 2026-06-11T23:05:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101943 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote> == References == pq2dvmrjveeqjnwa5wu7gvlxr9ravdw 101944 101943 2026-06-11T23:05:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. == References == 74o11shjikeoecr1arnx1r9c4kap7qu 101946 101944 2026-06-11T23:06:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101946 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". == References == kkopz6in3xig9n1s9p1m2wir9v9r8lb 101947 101946 2026-06-11T23:07:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101947 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. == References == bvde9jlklb353ynttst0xpxfrg9n8h8 101948 101947 2026-06-11T23:07:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101948 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. == References == 6f9q3tldmukzwljeuzv2emtbkwhqshv 101949 101948 2026-06-11T23:08:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101949 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. == References == rs649f576a9a2jf6j6g873rhh3yqiv9 101950 101949 2026-06-11T23:08:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101950 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. == References == fev4e0il82o83amjjf78oo039k4u5fm 101951 101950 2026-06-11T23:09:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101951 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. == References == racawcjb0f6y43acj4w4qo55wt2ds70 101952 101951 2026-06-11T23:10:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101952 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. == References == lxupt3o51tpa80kw7kx481n5poi4url 101953 101952 2026-06-11T23:11:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101953 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. == References == phi0dj2cp296bmela6yvo939k3ayton 101955 101953 2026-06-11T23:11:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101955 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. == References == hqpift29dxnd4ft4ixu9svm5iosa64v 101956 101955 2026-06-11T23:12:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101956 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. == References == nqr7iyaynrkwznl28erzgarvxq1xrxv 101957 101956 2026-06-11T23:12:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101957 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. == References == 2ioi7aua9ryqytykjhd8d7m4wmt53j4 101958 101957 2026-06-11T23:13:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101958 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. == References == 8y3jyce29cjq73g7n5nmgicaj0ypcdz 101959 101958 2026-06-11T23:13:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101959 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. == References == hdh9wi6pw9s8c83vidwdhebvrhfkobg 101960 101959 2026-06-11T23:14:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101960 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. == References == 9yse4msm19caje1znb5xa31mifv3fln 101961 101960 2026-06-11T23:15:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101961 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. == References == 7glhpbj7weoy9mgpt3lnjdq6hnq44jv 101962 101961 2026-06-11T23:15:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101962 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. == References == i320xlum71per2e5ewlky2ny20nj1bb 101964 101962 2026-06-11T23:16:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101964 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == References == r9pdqidkh8ryc1h4qlieyq2g0ao9k0w 101965 101964 2026-06-11T23:16:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101965 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] == References == 2m9ykkkhny1r1s787os3085subsot3a 101966 101965 2026-06-11T23:16:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101966 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier" anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 9dzrfgf9zvsl7gy2zqgmdfvkxlmej6g 101968 101966 2026-06-11T23:17:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101968 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction". De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == r6yoam1sepyf6knt9n3s7ma2fe9nofu 101969 101968 2026-06-11T23:18:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101969 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am. For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == j1u8r398lggrqhmpguy98uc6mzjkgih 101970 101969 2026-06-11T23:18:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101970 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]]. Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 61df79oskjz5acz5cjlbpsfcjxit0ni 101971 101970 2026-06-11T23:19:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101971 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade. == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == su52icqmpsuckble9j509w99u1z0oyn 101972 101971 2026-06-11T23:19:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101972 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == rsy0c1t640qj87naysa5crmxyeaw74g 101973 101972 2026-06-11T23:20:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101973 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects. A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 2qwlwyl15fbkxb2jc60zrzxsthqw2s0 101974 101973 2026-06-11T23:20:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101974 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size. From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 4uulwbul96kyb1v1ehyprn7u1f17fix 101976 101974 2026-06-11T23:21:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101976 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation. Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 3slmawg2v480mpep1fm9elx0g7ct2ub 101977 101976 2026-06-11T23:22:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101977 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top. De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 9qq31b937olfh6hvjq0hr1g4dbn4q20 101978 101977 2026-06-11T23:22:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101978 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition. == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 1x2qjhe81i10gqkgkmlhqs5scr57uyv 101979 101978 2026-06-11T23:23:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101979 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am. Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 7hzbhccm43keir5x651q70j1iky7z09 101980 101979 2026-06-11T23:23:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101980 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands. == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == llez5zsubywdjtlq97k4rhvh3sdrw3x 101981 101980 2026-06-11T23:24:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101981 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep. Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 6aclcdh7x833ci98etuqf17w5t534ru 101982 101981 2026-06-11T23:24:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101982 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes''). De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == i2n0vxzqe9aml6g6r97b883zoi7skce 101983 101982 2026-06-11T23:25:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101983 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas. Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 02x2acl3zgyt79qor4fhbq4z7beppce 101984 101983 2026-06-11T23:25:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101984 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am. Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 70nhympu3vnujve6sjuijupqigqxbsc 101985 101984 2026-06-11T23:26:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101985 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland). White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == kt787atu5np9dpqvtsksroiz6ji8ju6 101986 101985 2026-06-11T23:27:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101986 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd. Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == rh7y5vcjnwk8k4omd4imjm89if4r7bc 101987 101986 2026-06-11T23:27:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101987 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 47vb5tn1fbldz4aa9n9yxsesokv2ahn 101988 101987 2026-06-11T23:28:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd. == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 7elxa710257a882ongne2lblmcdyxc6 101989 101988 2026-06-11T23:28:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101989 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd". Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == f1sp0a1gbsdd98g7sjd6fvxj2ujvanh 101990 101989 2026-06-11T23:29:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101990 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd. By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == d4e1m2iewb5vl0h0r0rbu1xyummjtr4 101991 101990 2026-06-11T23:29:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101991 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river. Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == c51xkgus5sdlimwf9rf99ucsdtnn899 101993 101991 2026-06-11T23:30:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101993 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 5r81fgwgnmex6wus0mw2nr7fd39dl51 101994 101993 2026-06-11T23:30:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101994 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile. Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == 4nge952lynrutmaptvdfvxucdrknz8z 101995 101994 2026-06-11T23:31:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd. South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == m1d0t42utusglb3k6dyio7zm3wpqpmt 101996 101995 2026-06-11T23:31:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101996 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130202055818/http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1|date=2 February 2013}} ''[[Environment and Urbanization]]'', October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply. Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == j8j5qab2bqwilepxmifvynvvlo74l82 101998 101996 2026-06-11T23:32:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101998 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130202055818/http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1|date=2 February 2013}} ''[[Environment and Urbanization]]'', October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top. De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == fa7amrtze1i33g24ay4icmkic4ddpjr 101999 101998 2026-06-11T23:33:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 101999 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130202055818/http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1|date=2 February 2013}} ''[[Environment and Urbanization]]'', October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands, a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == mlj70qm4cj045tdc2xdxxdragr9ugqz 102000 101999 2026-06-11T23:33:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102000 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130202055818/http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1|date=2 February 2013}} ''[[Environment and Urbanization]]'', October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd, wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == fu7ru8kffjjz6rea03gdw2xy4msfbzo 102001 102000 2026-06-11T23:34:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102001 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html |archive-date=14 June 2007 |publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]}} January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130202055818/http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1|date=2 February 2013}} ''[[Environment and Urbanization]]'', October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == d8hbyk1dcj1vuznsah3cfiuvefdlqn3 102002 102001 2026-06-11T23:41:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102002 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == i8pnwxc4s37pd462y3gg9dywytwm4a3 102003 102002 2026-06-11T23:42:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102003 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== bykpknf077lkxlcel2s6nm3a243fxak 102004 102003 2026-06-11T23:42:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102004 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 nxtmodwyesg52ajxp9ho4gyyeou6w31 102005 102004 2026-06-11T23:42:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102005 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 8840mcyri5mbnxgbozm1foc7czakufn 102006 102005 2026-06-11T23:43:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102006 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany obvjgdsd2ssjk5yg8oklb97t5mcq974 102007 102006 2026-06-11T23:43:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102007 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK a7d08wurzu7m9i3lrfngvqv0z8c6qm8 102008 102007 2026-06-11T23:44:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102008 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == 4o3s58al8w2bbhdi81grs4a9blph9zt 102009 102008 2026-06-11T23:44:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102009 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} h0pyswu6zofs0t1w45w365tcipx2ss0 102010 102009 2026-06-11T23:45:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102010 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} 583mc7krak1kktoscq3wg66dsxbqwdn 102011 102010 2026-06-11T23:45:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102011 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}} gcel8q9484zw1zpoung5gnmv20mhv8w 102012 102011 2026-06-11T23:45:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102012 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}} == External links == 38suhzy10jwtfvas7w0of3ljbjodzjz 102013 102012 2026-06-11T23:46:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102013 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}} == External links == * [https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL2827708220070528 Elephant herds found on isolated south Sudan island] ihrobjb5sr6l1qsgoi4fm6rvaa73c6v 102014 102013 2026-06-11T23:48:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102014 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}} == External links == * [https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL2827708220070528 Elephant herds wey dem find for isolated south Sudan island top] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm Current hydrological] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm den ecological research program for de Sudd swamps top] 73uoq9pfk2dv5kys8v31jkiv2iwtexr 102015 102014 2026-06-11T23:49:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102015 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' ([[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]]: السد, <small>[[:en:Romanization_of_Arabic|romanized]]</small>: ''as-Sudd'', [[:en:Nuer_language|Nuer]]: Baki̱ec, [[:en:Dinka_language|Dinka]]: Toc) be a vast [[:en:Swamp|swamp]] for [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]] ein ''[[:en:Mountain_Nile|Baḥr al-Jabal]]'' section form am. Dem derive de [[:en:Arabic_language|Arabic]] word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp covers be one of de world ein largest [[:en:Wetland|wetlands]] den de largest freshwater wetland for de [[:en:Nile_Basin|Nile Basin]] insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De [[:en:Ancient_Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, [[:en:Nero's_exploration_of_the_Nile|a party of Roman soldiers]] wey de Emperor [[:en:Nero|Nero]] send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into [[:en:Equatorial_Africa|equatorial Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|give de source of de Nile]] be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[:en:West_Africa|West African]] rise for [[:en:Atmospheric_methane|atmospheric methane]] levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from [[:en:Mongalla,_South_Sudan|Mongalla]] to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] [[:en:Confluence|confluence]] plus de White Nile just upstream of [[:en:Malakal|Malakal]] as well as westwards along de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]]. De shallow den flat [[:en:River_delta|inland delta]] dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de [[:en:Wet_season|wet season]] e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various [[:en:Meander|meandering]] channels, [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]], reed den [[:en:Papyrus|papyrus]] fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru [[:en:Evapotranspiration|evapotranspiration]] for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]], wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach [[:en:Bor,_South_Sudan|Bor]] from de [[:en:White_Nile#Albert_Nile|Albert Nile]] den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de [[:en:White_Nile#In_South_Sudan|Bahr al Jabal]] ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de [[:en:Giraffe|Giraffes]]") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass [[:en:Lake_No|Lake No]], wey de [[:en:Bahr_el_Ghazal_River|Bahr el Ghazal]] ("Sea of de[[:en:Gazelle|Gazelles]]") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Wetland of International Importance]] for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap [[:en:Sediment|sediments]] from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. [[:en:Orographic_lift|Orographic lifting]] for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de [[:en:Floodplain|floodplain]], wey dey slope down to de north, while north of [[:en:Juba|Juba]] de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly [[:en:Permeability_(Earth_sciences)|impermeable]] plus a top layer of "black cotton" [[:en:Vertisol|vertisol]] of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den [[:en:Dinka_people|Dinka]] pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''[[:en:Phragmites_communis|Phragmites communis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_pyramidalis|Echinochloa pyramidalis]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Oryza_barthii|Oryza barthii]]'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''[[:en:Echinochloa_stagnina|Echinochloa stagnina]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Vossia_cuspidata|Vossia cuspidata]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Cyperus papyrus]]'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''[[:en:Typha_domingensis|Typha domingensis]]'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating [[:en:Pistia|Nile cabbage]] (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive [[:en:Pontederia_crassipes|water hyacinth]] (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of [[:en:Mosquito|mosquitoes]] den [[:en:Parasite|parasites]] dat dey cause [[:en:Waterborne_diseases|waterborne diseases]]. === Fauna === Including several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as [[:en:Marbled_lungfish|marbled lungfish]], [[:en:Polypterus_senegalus|Senegal bichir]], [[:en:African_arowana|African arowana]], ''[[:en:Mormyrus_caschive|Mormyrus caschive]]'', [[:en:Nile_carp|Nile carp]], [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]], [[:en:Mango_tilapia|mango tilapia]], [[:en:Redbelly_tilapia|redbelly tilapia]], [[:en:Nile_perch|Nile perch]], ''[[:en:Distichodus|Distichodus]] rostratus'', [[:en:Hydrocynus_forskahlii|elongate tigerfish]], [[:en:Alestidae|African tetras]], [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|African sharptooth catfish]], ''[[:en:Synodontis_frontosus|Synodontis frontosus]]'', ''[[:en:Synodontis_schall|S. schall]]'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few [[:en:Endemism|endemics]] of de Sudd system be ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]] engelseni'', ''[[:en:Enteromius_yeiensis|Enteromius yeiensis]]'', ''[[:en:Nothobranchius|Nothobranchius]] nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently [[:en:Undescribed_taxon|undescribed species]] of ''[[:en:Enteromius|Enteromius]]'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include [[:en:Shoebill|shoebills]] (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), [[:en:Great_white_pelican|great white pelicans]], den [[:en:Black_crowned_crane|black crowned cranes]]. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of [[:en:Bird_migration|migrating birds]]. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry [[:en:Sahel|Sahel]] across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give [[:en:Animal_migration|migrating]] mammals, especially [[:en:Antelope|antelopes]], such as de [[:en:Bohor_reedbuck|bohor reedbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]] (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered [[:en:Nile_lechwe|Nile lechwe]] (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de [[:en:Kob|white-eared kob]] (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, [[:en:Tiang_(antelope)|tiang]] den [[:en:Mongalla_gazelle|Mongalla gazelle]] dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodiles]] den [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamuses]]. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered [[:en:African_wild_dog|painted hunting dog]], wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running [[:en:Second_Sudanese_Civil_War|civil war in Southern Sudan]] seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: [[:en:Zeraf_Island|Zeraf Island]] between de [[:en:Zeraf_River|Zeraf River]] den de Nile, [[:en:Shambe|Shambe]] Reserve, den [[:en:Mongalla_Game_Reserve|Mongalla Game Reserve]]. == Jonglei diversion canal == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Jonglei_Canal|Jonglei Canal]]''</blockquote>De early explorers wey dey search give de [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|source of]] [[:en:Nile#European_search_for_the_source|de Nile]] experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', [[:en:Alan_Moorehead|Alan Moorehead]] wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a [[:en:Canal|canal]] east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de [[:en:Sudan_People's_Liberation_Movement-North|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a [[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Okavango_Delta|Okavango Delta]] * [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|Draining of]] [[:en:Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes|de Mesopotamian Marshes]] == References == <references /> ==== Bibliography ==== * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Further reading == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}} == External links == * [https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL2827708220070528 Elephant herds wey dem find for isolated south Sudan island top] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm Current hydrological] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm den ecological research program for de Sudd swamps top] * [https://maps.google.com/?ll=9.400291,30.500793&spn=1.287076,1.873169&t=k Sudd –] [https://maps.google.com/?ll=9.400291,30.500793&spn=1.287076,1.873169&t=k for Google Maps top] hnqqld4jvwr48mc331camjpk4vjhlrq 0 27467 101837 2026-06-11T17:53:04Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 101837 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} p5dg7ctzg9eyxe8rhku941deefjr4qv 101838 101837 2026-06-11T17:58:06Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 101838 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == References == 14oyx8de46sew94gxvwgpy2o390iqoc 101839 101838 2026-06-11T17:59:34Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 101839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == == References == 8x9p7lgam8cxl0l6w0ruc1do99s3cvr 101840 101839 2026-06-11T18:04:36Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 101840 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == [[File:The Buffels River catchment.jpg|thumb|River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets (lines connecting points receiving similar rainfall over a specified time period). ]] De Buffels River originates insyd de inland highlands of de Northern Cape den flows westwards through Namaqualand, e passes through settlements such as Springbok, Nabaneep, den Okiep before reaching de Atlantic coast near Kleinzee, wey e may form a temporary estuary during flood periods. De total course of de river be around {{Convert abbreviated|250|km|mi}} insyd length.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Benito |first1=G. |last2=Botero |first2=B. A. |last3=Thorndycraft |first3=V. R. |last4=Rico |first4=M. |last5=Sánchez-Moya |first5=Y. |last6=Sopeña |first6=A. |last7=Machado |first7=M. J. |last8=Dahan |first8=O. |date=2011-04-08 |title=Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1185/2011/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1185–1196 |doi=10.5194/hess-15-1185-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011HESS...15.1185B |issn=1607-7938}}</ref> Insyd its lower reaches, de river be usually dry den only flows after heavy rainfall. E be highly ephemeral, flowing strictly during flash floods den heavy rains, den remains completely dry for most of de year.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Gend |first1=J. |last2=Francis |first2=M. L. |last3=Watson |first3=A. P. |last4=Palcsu |first4=L. |last5=Horváth |first5=A. |last6=Macey |first6=P. H. |last7=Le Roux |first7=P. |last8=Clarke |first8=C. E. |last9=Miller |first9=J. A. |title=Impacts of climate change and human activities on water resources and water quality |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=762 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143140 |pmid=33131834 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720366705}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2011-05-01 |title=Hydrological response of a dryland ephemeral river to southern African climatic variability during the last millennium |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en-US |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.yqre |doi-broken-date=8 June 2026 |issn=0033-5894 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240421184612/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |archive-date=2024-04-21}}</ref> == References == 7s3w66kcw40pghtvumnmqef0zklch32 101841 101840 2026-06-11T18:05:22Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 101841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == [[File:The Buffels River catchment.jpg|thumb|River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets (lines connecting points receiving similar rainfall over a specified time period). ]] De Buffels River originates insyd de inland highlands of de Northern Cape den flows westwards through Namaqualand, e passes through settlements such as Springbok, Nabaneep, den Okiep before reaching de Atlantic coast near Kleinzee, wey e may form a temporary estuary during flood periods. De total course of de river be around {{Convert abbreviated|250|km|mi}} insyd length.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Benito |first1=G. |last2=Botero |first2=B. A. |last3=Thorndycraft |first3=V. R. |last4=Rico |first4=M. |last5=Sánchez-Moya |first5=Y. |last6=Sopeña |first6=A. |last7=Machado |first7=M. J. |last8=Dahan |first8=O. |date=2011-04-08 |title=Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1185/2011/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1185–1196 |doi=10.5194/hess-15-1185-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011HESS...15.1185B |issn=1607-7938}}</ref> Insyd its lower reaches, de river be usually dry den only flows after heavy rainfall. E be highly ephemeral, flowing strictly during flash floods den heavy rains, den remains completely dry for most of de year.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Gend |first1=J. |last2=Francis |first2=M. L. |last3=Watson |first3=A. P. |last4=Palcsu |first4=L. |last5=Horváth |first5=A. |last6=Macey |first6=P. H. |last7=Le Roux |first7=P. |last8=Clarke |first8=C. E. |last9=Miller |first9=J. A. |title=Impacts of climate change and human activities on water resources and water quality |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=762 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143140 |pmid=33131834 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720366705}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2011-05-01 |title=Hydrological response of a dryland ephemeral river to southern African climatic variability during the last millennium |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en-US |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.yqre |doi-broken-date=8 June 2026 |issn=0033-5894 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240421184612/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |archive-date=2024-04-21}}</ref> == Hydrology == == References == a5szbh70ty2r6w3nhiv5s556zus6zzq 101845 101841 2026-06-11T18:08:15Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve article 101845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == [[File:The Buffels River catchment.jpg|thumb|River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets (lines connecting points receiving similar rainfall over a specified time period). ]] De Buffels River originates insyd de inland highlands of de Northern Cape den flows westwards through Namaqualand, e passes through settlements such as Springbok, Nabaneep, den Okiep before reaching de Atlantic coast near Kleinzee, wey e may form a temporary estuary during flood periods. De total course of de river be around {{Convert abbreviated|250|km|mi}} insyd length.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Benito |first1=G. |last2=Botero |first2=B. A. |last3=Thorndycraft |first3=V. R. |last4=Rico |first4=M. |last5=Sánchez-Moya |first5=Y. |last6=Sopeña |first6=A. |last7=Machado |first7=M. J. |last8=Dahan |first8=O. |date=2011-04-08 |title=Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1185/2011/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1185–1196 |doi=10.5194/hess-15-1185-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011HESS...15.1185B |issn=1607-7938}}</ref> Insyd its lower reaches, de river be usually dry den only flows after heavy rainfall. E be highly ephemeral, flowing strictly during flash floods den heavy rains, den remains completely dry for most of de year.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Gend |first1=J. |last2=Francis |first2=M. L. |last3=Watson |first3=A. P. |last4=Palcsu |first4=L. |last5=Horváth |first5=A. |last6=Macey |first6=P. H. |last7=Le Roux |first7=P. |last8=Clarke |first8=C. E. |last9=Miller |first9=J. A. |title=Impacts of climate change and human activities on water resources and water quality |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=762 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143140 |pmid=33131834 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720366705}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2011-05-01 |title=Hydrological response of a dryland ephemeral river to southern African climatic variability during the last millennium |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en-US |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.yqre |doi-broken-date=8 June 2026 |issn=0033-5894 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240421184612/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |archive-date=2024-04-21}}</ref> == Hydrology == De Buffels River be an ephemeral river dat flows only after rain has fallen. E drains a catchment area of approximately 9,000–9,500 km² den e primarily depends on austral winter rainfall between May den September, although de eastern part of de catchment experiences summer rainfall associated plus thunderstorms.<ref name=":2" /> Rainfall insyd de region ranges between 100 mm den 300 mm annually, making de river highly prone to flash floods followed by long dry periods.<ref name=":0" /> De majority of floods occur insyd de winter rainfall season, although occasional summer rainfall may cause flash floods.<ref name=":2" /> == References == dk27dzdcn3wok8jdxa25yu9wr9y8cgx 101846 101845 2026-06-11T18:09:10Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 101846 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == [[File:The Buffels River catchment.jpg|thumb|River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets (lines connecting points receiving similar rainfall over a specified time period). ]] De Buffels River originates insyd de inland highlands of de Northern Cape den flows westwards through Namaqualand, e passes through settlements such as Springbok, Nabaneep, den Okiep before reaching de Atlantic coast near Kleinzee, wey e may form a temporary estuary during flood periods. De total course of de river be around {{Convert abbreviated|250|km|mi}} insyd length.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Benito |first1=G. |last2=Botero |first2=B. A. |last3=Thorndycraft |first3=V. R. |last4=Rico |first4=M. |last5=Sánchez-Moya |first5=Y. |last6=Sopeña |first6=A. |last7=Machado |first7=M. J. |last8=Dahan |first8=O. |date=2011-04-08 |title=Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1185/2011/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1185–1196 |doi=10.5194/hess-15-1185-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011HESS...15.1185B |issn=1607-7938}}</ref> Insyd its lower reaches, de river be usually dry den only flows after heavy rainfall. E be highly ephemeral, flowing strictly during flash floods den heavy rains, den remains completely dry for most of de year.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Gend |first1=J. |last2=Francis |first2=M. L. |last3=Watson |first3=A. P. |last4=Palcsu |first4=L. |last5=Horváth |first5=A. |last6=Macey |first6=P. H. |last7=Le Roux |first7=P. |last8=Clarke |first8=C. E. |last9=Miller |first9=J. A. |title=Impacts of climate change and human activities on water resources and water quality |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=762 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143140 |pmid=33131834 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720366705}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2011-05-01 |title=Hydrological response of a dryland ephemeral river to southern African climatic variability during the last millennium |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en-US |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.yqre |doi-broken-date=8 June 2026 |issn=0033-5894 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240421184612/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |archive-date=2024-04-21}}</ref> == Hydrology == De Buffels River be an ephemeral river dat flows only after rain has fallen. E drains a catchment area of approximately 9,000–9,500 km² den e primarily depends on austral winter rainfall between May den September, although de eastern part of de catchment experiences summer rainfall associated plus thunderstorms.<ref name=":2" /> Rainfall insyd de region ranges between 100 mm den 300 mm annually, making de river highly prone to flash floods followed by long dry periods.<ref name=":0" /> De majority of floods occur insyd de winter rainfall season, although occasional summer rainfall may cause flash floods.<ref name=":2" /> == Geology den Environment == == References == 2glpt1svahxh17oco6my4wltbdmmgxh 101847 101846 2026-06-11T18:13:36Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 101847 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == [[File:The Buffels River catchment.jpg|thumb|River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets (lines connecting points receiving similar rainfall over a specified time period). ]] De Buffels River originates insyd de inland highlands of de Northern Cape den flows westwards through Namaqualand, e passes through settlements such as Springbok, Nabaneep, den Okiep before reaching de Atlantic coast near Kleinzee, wey e may form a temporary estuary during flood periods. De total course of de river be around {{Convert abbreviated|250|km|mi}} insyd length.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Benito |first1=G. |last2=Botero |first2=B. A. |last3=Thorndycraft |first3=V. R. |last4=Rico |first4=M. |last5=Sánchez-Moya |first5=Y. |last6=Sopeña |first6=A. |last7=Machado |first7=M. J. |last8=Dahan |first8=O. |date=2011-04-08 |title=Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1185/2011/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1185–1196 |doi=10.5194/hess-15-1185-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011HESS...15.1185B |issn=1607-7938}}</ref> Insyd its lower reaches, de river be usually dry den only flows after heavy rainfall. E be highly ephemeral, flowing strictly during flash floods den heavy rains, den remains completely dry for most of de year.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Gend |first1=J. |last2=Francis |first2=M. L. |last3=Watson |first3=A. P. |last4=Palcsu |first4=L. |last5=Horváth |first5=A. |last6=Macey |first6=P. H. |last7=Le Roux |first7=P. |last8=Clarke |first8=C. E. |last9=Miller |first9=J. A. |title=Impacts of climate change and human activities on water resources and water quality |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=762 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143140 |pmid=33131834 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720366705}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2011-05-01 |title=Hydrological response of a dryland ephemeral river to southern African climatic variability during the last millennium |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en-US |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.yqre |doi-broken-date=8 June 2026 |issn=0033-5894 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240421184612/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |archive-date=2024-04-21}}</ref> == Hydrology == De Buffels River be an ephemeral river dat flows only after rain has fallen. E drains a catchment area of approximately 9,000–9,500 km² den e primarily depends on austral winter rainfall between May den September, although de eastern part of de catchment experiences summer rainfall associated plus thunderstorms.<ref name=":2" /> Rainfall insyd de region ranges between 100 mm den 300 mm annually, making de river highly prone to flash floods followed by long dry periods.<ref name=":0" /> De majority of floods occur insyd de winter rainfall season, although occasional summer rainfall may cause flash floods.<ref name=":2" /> == Geology den Environment == De river flows through de Namaqualand geological province, wich be dominate by ancient granite, gneiss, den metamorphic rocks. De region be semi-arid plus sparse vegetation wey adapt to drought conditions. Because de soil be shallow den rocky, e cannot retain much water, so rainwater runs off quickly after rainfall.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research Portal |url=https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/esploro/outputs/graduate/The-provenance-of-the-Buffels-River/9911142007691 |access-date=2026-06-07 |website=ujcontent.uj.ac.za}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> == References == 4mfrbryc0us4jqlx125jild9p7tmtjl 101848 101847 2026-06-11T18:14:32Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 101848 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|River in Northern Cape province}}{{Infobox river | mapframe = Yes | name = Buffels River | map = South Africa Northern Cape location map.svg | map_size = 250 | map_caption = Location of the Buffels River in Northern Cape, South Africa | pushpin_map = South Africa | pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of the Buffels River near kleinzee | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = South Africa | subdivision_type2 = Province | subdivision_name2 = Northern Cape | source1 = Kamiesberg region | source1_location = Northern Cape | mouth = Atlantic Ocean | mouth_location = Near Kleinzee | basin_size = ~9,250 km² | river_system = Buffels River system | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|29|40|35|S|17|3|8|E|display=inline,title}} }} '''Buffels River''' be river dat flows only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E flows through de arid Namaqualand region den generally drains westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey made up of highly irregular flow patterns, e depends mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd its catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == [[File:The Buffels River catchment.jpg|thumb|River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets (lines connecting points receiving similar rainfall over a specified time period). ]] De Buffels River originates insyd de inland highlands of de Northern Cape den flows westwards through Namaqualand, e passes through settlements such as Springbok, Nabaneep, den Okiep before reaching de Atlantic coast near Kleinzee, wey e may form a temporary estuary during flood periods. De total course of de river be around {{Convert abbreviated|250|km|mi}} insyd length.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Benito |first1=G. |last2=Botero |first2=B. A. |last3=Thorndycraft |first3=V. R. |last4=Rico |first4=M. |last5=Sánchez-Moya |first5=Y. |last6=Sopeña |first6=A. |last7=Machado |first7=M. J. |last8=Dahan |first8=O. |date=2011-04-08 |title=Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1185/2011/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1185–1196 |doi=10.5194/hess-15-1185-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011HESS...15.1185B |issn=1607-7938}}</ref> Insyd its lower reaches, de river be usually dry den only flows after heavy rainfall. E be highly ephemeral, flowing strictly during flash floods den heavy rains, den remains completely dry for most of de year.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Gend |first1=J. |last2=Francis |first2=M. L. |last3=Watson |first3=A. P. |last4=Palcsu |first4=L. |last5=Horváth |first5=A. |last6=Macey |first6=P. H. |last7=Le Roux |first7=P. |last8=Clarke |first8=C. E. |last9=Miller |first9=J. A. |title=Impacts of climate change and human activities on water resources and water quality |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=762 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143140 |pmid=33131834 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720366705}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2011-05-01 |title=Hydrological response of a dryland ephemeral river to southern African climatic variability during the last millennium |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en-US |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.yqre |doi-broken-date=8 June 2026 |issn=0033-5894 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240421184612/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |archive-date=2024-04-21}}</ref> == Hydrology == De Buffels River be an ephemeral river dat flows only after rain has fallen. E drains a catchment area of approximately 9,000–9,500 km² den e primarily depends on austral winter rainfall between May den September, although de eastern part of de catchment experiences summer rainfall associated plus thunderstorms.<ref name=":2" /> Rainfall insyd de region ranges between 100 mm den 300 mm annually, making de river highly prone to flash floods followed by long dry periods.<ref name=":0" /> De majority of floods occur insyd de winter rainfall season, although occasional summer rainfall may cause flash floods.<ref name=":2" /> == Geology den Environment == De river flows through de Namaqualand geological province, wich be dominate by ancient granite, gneiss, den metamorphic rocks. De region be semi-arid plus sparse vegetation wey adapt to drought conditions. Because de soil be shallow den rocky, e cannot retain much water, so rainwater runs off quickly after rainfall.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research Portal |url=https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/esploro/outputs/graduate/The-provenance-of-the-Buffels-River/9911142007691 |access-date=2026-06-07 |website=ujcontent.uj.ac.za}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> == References == pmpfcca7t3xenukxe1qvi7f1te7b04k 14 27468 101843 2026-06-11T18:06:40Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 101843 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27469 101844 2026-06-11T18:06:51Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 101844 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27470 101851 2026-06-11T18:56:42Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 101851 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> == References == nihglae91jmrhhmkptqs3md3jr737hn 101852 101851 2026-06-11T18:59:40Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 101852 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: == References == # Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate and equitable [[WASH|sanitation and hygiene]] for all and end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations; # Improve [[water quality]], by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater ([[wastewater treatment]]) and substantially increasing recycling and [[Reclaimed water|safe reuse]] globally; # Substantially increase [[water efficiency | water-use efficiency]] across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of [[fresh water]] to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management ([[Integrated water resources management|IWRM]]), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect and restore water-related [[ecosystem]]s, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.</noinclude> == References == 1ayyxy0h4fzlx3kdoybxfzmuo6ec53j 101853 101852 2026-06-11T19:02:03Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 101853 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> == References == # Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate and equitable [[WASH|sanitation and hygiene]] for all and end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations; # Improve [[water quality]], by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater ([[wastewater treatment]]) and substantially increasing recycling and [[Reclaimed water|safe reuse]] globally; # Substantially increase [[water efficiency | water-use efficiency]] across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of [[fresh water]] to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management ([[Integrated water resources management|IWRM]]), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect and restore water-related [[ecosystem]]s, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.</noinclude> == References == gp4n8a046noge2uhyt2ier9fsztxg7t 101856 101853 2026-06-11T19:16:45Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 101856 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. == References == bahcxd36vj0008aw44v0dztv0csfvyc 102034 101856 2026-06-12T07:04:23Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey improve am 102034 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == References == nqu4hgs8vao98ykkgl2yxxh43f46bhy 102035 102034 2026-06-12T07:05:09Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 102035 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == == References == ffkj64rehtt4g6hnhze291r1wthd6ws 102036 102035 2026-06-12T07:08:46Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102036 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. == References == cht7uig5jl3zjyvzetnbsfox04px7yi 102037 102036 2026-06-12T07:10:10Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102037 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> == References == 9lxpgxdd8h4sp8g7geha8ibxvbke89e 102039 102037 2026-06-12T07:12:02Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102039 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> == References == 5fotksn2t4bevm8l4umukcj6tij2usb 102040 102039 2026-06-12T07:12:52Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 102040 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== == References == 88jlg2aj0bhht54fn7i7000e9xq1ss3 102041 102040 2026-06-12T07:14:03Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102041 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b in 2022: "Share of the population with basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] == References == d1e0mkvgci45ractoqpw962jov18qtm 102042 102041 2026-06-12T07:17:59Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102042 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b in 2022: "Share of the population with basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> == References == cfihye3f0pz86ue7wk72bxp1d10z1k9 102043 102042 2026-06-12T07:23:05Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102043 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b in 2022: "Share of the population with basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> == References == rei7ht6df6oqejsilbipp7r72c38f5r 102045 102043 2026-06-12T07:24:29Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve article 102045 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b in 2022: "Share of the population with basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> == References == be5amshq5h8x2yvdlftskomlmx6m27g 102046 102045 2026-06-12T07:25:58Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve article 102046 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b in 2022: "Share of the population with basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 found dat "less dan 50 percent of countries have comparable baseline estimates for most SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} == References == cyegqmd5uc0yrzta83cf04ksjs4d0g7 102047 102046 2026-06-12T07:26:47Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102047 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b in 2022: "Share of the population with basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 found dat "less dan 50 percent of countries have comparable baseline estimates for most SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === == References == ancchbz7taekfacsflumypm25nbktw9 102048 102047 2026-06-12T07:28:19Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102048 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b insyd 2022: "Share of de population plus basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 found dat "less dan 50 percent of countries have comparable baseline estimates for most SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === De full title of Target 6.1 be: "By 2030, achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all".<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> == References == 0r6zftzg1275zpda7a4eja7c6o5vvso 102049 102048 2026-06-12T07:29:53Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve article 102049 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b insyd 2022: "Share of de population plus basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 found dat "less dan 50 percent of countries have comparable baseline estimates for most SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === De full title of Target 6.1 be: "By 2030, achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all".<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 be de "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services".<ref name=":3" /> == References == kbpvpg8ax9yuzow9elmjpk1u9trku4j 102050 102049 2026-06-12T07:32:19Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve article 102050 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b insyd 2022: "Share of de population plus basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 found dat "less dan 50 percent of countries have comparable baseline estimates for most SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === De full title of Target 6.1 be: "By 2030, achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all".<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 be de "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services".<ref name=":3" /> De definition of "safely managed drinking water service" be: "Drinking water from an improved water source dat be located on premises, available wen needed den free from fecal den priority [[Water pollution|chemical contamination]]."<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170716004247/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2017/en/ Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines]. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref>{{rp|8}} == References == g5ue1wg623o4msnao4qydiowmz0q5g6 102051 102050 2026-06-12T07:33:19Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve article 102051 wikitext text/x-wiki {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b insyd 2022: "Share of de population plus basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 found dat "less dan 50 percent of countries have comparable baseline estimates for most SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === De full title of Target 6.1 be: "By 2030, achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all".<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 be de "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services".<ref name=":3" /> De definition of "safely managed drinking water service" be: "Drinking water from an improved water source dat be located on premises, available wen needed den free from fecal den priority [[Water pollution|chemical contamination]]."<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170716004247/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2017/en/ Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines]. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref>{{rp|8}} === Target 6.2: End open defecation den provide access to sanitation den hygiene === == References == eqi72dnjahgmdafuf1jxa7vrudsm35z 102054 102051 2026-06-12T07:47:40Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 102054 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{United Nations series}} '''Na Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') declares de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wet established by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal has eight targets to be achieved by 2030 covering de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> <noinclude> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>'' are to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people suffering from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes.</noinclude> Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref name=":2" /> de Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population used safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards related to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, leading to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs are sanso achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) has determined dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries have written de human right to water into enforceable legislation creating serious problems for people wishing to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as South Africa, plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 found dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020" /> Insyd 2022, de OECD dey estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== {{Further|List of SDG targets and indicators}} [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' {{cc-notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b insyd 2022: "Share of de population plus basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 dey get eight targets including two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem are to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sansk get one anaa two indicators wich fir be used to measure progress. Insyd total there are 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets are to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 found dat "less dan 50 percent of countries have comparable baseline estimates for most SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === De full title of Target 6.1 be: "By 2030, achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all".<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 be de "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services".<ref name=":3" /> De definition of "safely managed drinking water service" be: "Drinking water from an improved water source dat be located on premises, available wen needed den free from fecal den priority [[Water pollution|chemical contamination]]."<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170716004247/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2017/en/ Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines]. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref>{{rp|8}} === Target 6.2: End open defecation den provide access to sanitation den hygiene === == References == 26da4khmr0s1utsui0i3b70xqgkcnj8 0 27471 101859 2026-06-11T20:42:46Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1338944520|Ruvuma River]]" 101859 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ruvuma River''', dem formerly sanso know as de '''Rovuma River''', be a river insyd de [[African Great Lakes]] region. During de greater part of ein course, e dey form de border between [[Tanzania]] den [[Mozambique]]. De river be 998 km (620 mi) long, plus a drainage basin of ~155,000 km2 (60,000 mi2) in size. Ein mean annual discharge be 475 m3/s (16,800 cu ft/s) to 2,286 m3/s (80,700 cu ft/s) at ein mouth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nakayama |first=Mikiyasu |title=International Waters in Southern Africa |publisher=United Nations University Press |year=2003 |isbn=92-808-1077-4 |page=9}}</ref><ref name="Ceantral East Coast">{{Cite web |title=Central East Coast |url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=101&catid=270&Itemid=179}}</ref> == Discharge == Average den maximum discharge of de Rovuma River (<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles>11°9′53.9532″S 39°15′37.8072″E / 11.164987000°S 39.260502000°E / -11.164987000; 39.260502000):<ref name="Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River">{{Cite journal |last=M.R. |first=Minihane |year=2012 |title=Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S147470651200112X |journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth |volume=50-52 |pages=14–23 |doi=10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.003 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !VIC modeled (1999–2008) !MFR estimated flows (1999–2008) !UNH-GRDC historical period (1957–1999) |- | colspan="3" |Average discharge |- |1,864 m3/s (65,800 cu ft/s) |1,866 m3/s (65,900 cu ft/s) |1,838 m3/s (64,900 cu ft/s) |- | colspan="3" |Maximum discharge |- |22,365 m3/s (789,800 cu ft/s) |22,630 m3/s (799,000 cu ft/s) |22,053 m3/s (778,800 cu ft/s) |} Average monthly discharge of de Rovuma River (<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles>11°9′53.9532″S 39°15′37.8072″E / 11.164987000°S 39.260502000°E / -11.164987000; 39.260502000), UNH-GRDC historical period (1957–1999):<ref name="Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River">{{Cite journal |last=M.R. |first=Minihane |year=2012 |title=Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S147470651200112X |journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth |volume=50-52 |pages=14–23 |doi=10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.003 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free}}<cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFM.R.2012">M.R., Minihane (2012). </cite></ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Month !Discharge (m³/s) |- |JAN |3,340 |- |FEB |4,040 |- |MAR |5,390 |- |APR |3,880 |- |MAY |1,780 |- |JUN |780 |- |JUL |350 |- |AUG |160 |- |SEP |50 |- |OCT |80 |- |NOV |270 |- |DEC |1,940 |} == Tributaries == De largest tributaries of de Rovuma River:<ref name="Ceantral East Coast">{{Cite web |title=Central East Coast |url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=101&catid=270&Itemid=179}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=101&catid=270&Itemid=179 "Central East Coast"].</cite></ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Left tributary !Right tributary !Length (km) !Basin size (km²) !Average discharge (m³/s) |- | colspan="2" |''Rovuma'' |''760'' |''155,316.4'' |''1,773'' |- |Kitama | |70 |1,065.8 |12.3 |- | |Matiu |100 |1,920.1 |26.1 |- |Mwiti | |80 |994.2 |14 |- | |Ninga |100 |1,572.8 |19.8 |- |Miesi | rowspan="2" | |80 |946.7 |12.5 |- |Mbangala |160 |3 598.2 |44.4 |- | |Lugenda |650 |60,990.4 |752.1 |- |Lukwika | |100 |1,331.5 |16.3 |- | |Manjesi |90 |1,084.2 |16.3 |- |Lumesule | rowspan="4" | |180 |2,342.8 |28.9 |- |Muhuwesi |240 |10,319.6 |137.3 |- |Mzinieva |100 |1,285.4 |22.5 |- |Chimovero | |638.3 |11.2 |- | |Licombe |60 |975.7 |16 |- |Lukembule | | |1,234.6 |21.6 |- | rowspan="2" | |Chiluezi | |3,544.9 |55.1 |- |Lopele | |763.1 |13.3 |- |Luvingo | |80 |592.4 |10.3 |- | |Ludimilé | |1,129.4 |20.7 |- |Sasawara | rowspan="2" | |90 |2,322.8 |37.3 |- |Msangesi |120 |1,614.1 |23.8 |- | rowspan="4" | |Lipapa | |753.5 |14.2 |- |Lussanhando | |2,863.2 |51.9 |- |Lucheringo |250 |9,288.1 |200.5 |- |Lualece |60 |611.9 |11 |- |Miongosi | rowspan="3" | |50 |964.3 |11.6 |- |Likonde |150 |5,914.8 |61.2 |- |Mlongasi |100 |960.8 |11.9 |- | |Messinge |238 |7,525.4 |174.8 |- |Lunyere | |190 |6,210.1 |78.7 |} == Overview == De lower Ruvuma river be formed by de junction at 11° 25′ S, 38° 31′ E of two branches of nearly equal importance, de longer of wich, de Lujenda, dey cam from de south-west, de oda, wich still dey bear de name Ruvuma, from de west. Ein source dey lie on an undulating plateau, 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high, immediately to de east of [[Lake Malawi|Lake Nyasa]], at 10° 45′ S, 35° 40′ E, de head-stream dey flow first due west before turning south den east. Insyd ein eastward course, de Ruvuma dey flow near de base of de escarpment of an arid sandstone plateau to de north, from wich direction de stream, wich cut demselves deep channels insyd de plateau edge, get almost all short courses. tokkdgne03i7ru6r5vk1v3xihnstfdj 0 27472 101867 2026-06-11T22:06:45Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1353382162|Geba River]]" 101867 wikitext text/x-wiki Dey '''Geba''' ({{langx|fr|Rivière Geba}}, {{langx|pt|Rio Geba}}) ebi [[river]] ein [[West Africa]]. Edey flow for approximately {{convert|550|km}} wey dey pass [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. Edey call de '''Kayanga''' ein Senegal. 74dar5gu756uytuju27hrgv526mtmak 0 27473 101883 2026-06-11T22:25:17Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 I don start one article 101883 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6|mode=cs1}} {{Use American English|date=August 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{trim|{{#section:Properties of water|Chembox}}}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> 5jizf8x8x6x5ci2zeq2cv50eni9zkfg 101886 101883 2026-06-11T22:27:48Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Remove templates 101886 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> f0f5lall2qw5qrx8vb545lm5m0wwyoy 101897 101886 2026-06-11T22:35:57Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 I don start one article 101897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> n36eqqsu2bp9ta550u188yxaqmq5mj5 101907 101897 2026-06-11T22:42:24Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 101907 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ::: 5wc468nile6an6x4s4p7hamdpi9wg1x 101912 101907 2026-06-11T22:46:10Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* Phase transitions */ 101912 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. 1w8umyd6yl5ha3mg8fo5uygqpfm841l 101918 101912 2026-06-11T22:50:07Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 101918 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. :::writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> q7o19tp9ibaa7jhxp33cdk78j2plk39 101924 101918 2026-06-11T22:53:50Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 101924 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> ====As a scientific standard==== On 7 April 1795, dem define di gram for France say e go equal "di exact weight of one volume of pure water wey equal cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and for di temperature wey ice dey melt".<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey be one thousand times heavier, wey be di kilogram. So dem assign scientists make dem determine di exact mass of one liter of water. Even though di official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—di scientists decide say dem go redefine di standard and do dia measurements for di temperature where water get ein highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> Di Kelvin temperature scale of di SI system bin dey based on di triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey based on di Boltzmann constant instead. Di scale be absolute temperature scale wey get di same increment as di Celsius temperature scale, wey originally dem define according to di boiling point ({{convert|100|C}}) and melting point ({{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain di isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small quantity of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) too dey inside. Di percentage of these heavier isotopes small well-well, but e still dey affect water ein properties. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of dat, dem define standard water according to di Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] Di human body contain around 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get anywhere between 45% and 75% water for dia body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Di U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily intake of {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water for adult men and {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}} for women.<ref name=":2" /> Di exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and oda factors. Most of this water intake come from food and beverages, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Medical literature often support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for average adult man, excluding extra requirements caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress from activities like exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than dia body need during exercise, and this fit put dem for risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit even cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> Di popular claim say "person for drink eight glasses of water every day" no get strong scientific evidence behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say drinking extra water, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Adequate fluid intake too dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] Di original recommendation for water intake wey di Food and Nutrition Board of di U.S. National Research Council make for 1945 talk say: "Normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity already dey inside prepared foods."<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> Di latest dietary reference intake report from di U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on median total water intake from U.S. survey data (including food sources): {{convert|3.7|L}} total water for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} total water for women. Di report note say water from food contribute around 19% of total water intake in di survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. Di US Institute of Medicine recommend say, on average, men for consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women for increase dia intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, and breastfeeding women for get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E still note say normally around 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while di rest come from drinking water and beverages (including caffeinated drinks).<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> Water dey leave di body through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase, and daily fluid needs fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey no get plenty impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds like pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria such as ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some solutes dey acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide necessary electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> Di biggest freshwater resource for di world wey suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. :::writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> pmx9zn447l50sb37qnobik1t8u5l2ox 101936 101924 2026-06-11T23:01:14Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 101936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> ====As a scientific standard==== On 7 April 1795, dem define di gram for France say e go equal "di exact weight of one volume of pure water wey equal cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and for di temperature wey ice dey melt".<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey be one thousand times heavier, wey be di kilogram. So dem assign scientists make dem determine di exact mass of one liter of water. Even though di official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—di scientists decide say dem go redefine di standard and do dia measurements for di temperature where water get ein highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> Di Kelvin temperature scale of di SI system bin dey based on di triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey based on di Boltzmann constant instead. Di scale be absolute temperature scale wey get di same increment as di Celsius temperature scale, wey originally dem define according to di boiling point ({{convert|100|C}}) and melting point ({{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain di isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small quantity of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) too dey inside. Di percentage of these heavier isotopes small well-well, but e still dey affect water ein properties. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of dat, dem define standard water according to di Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] Di human body contain around 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get anywhere between 45% and 75% water for dia body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Di U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily intake of {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water for adult men and {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}} for women.<ref name=":2" /> Di exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and oda factors. Most of this water intake come from food and beverages, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Medical literature often support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for average adult man, excluding extra requirements caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress from activities like exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than dia body need during exercise, and this fit put dem for risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit even cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> Di popular claim say "person for drink eight glasses of water every day" no get strong scientific evidence behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say drinking extra water, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Adequate fluid intake too dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] Di original recommendation for water intake wey di Food and Nutrition Board of di U.S. National Research Council make for 1945 talk say: "Normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity already dey inside prepared foods."<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> Di latest dietary reference intake report from di U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on median total water intake from U.S. survey data (including food sources): {{convert|3.7|L}} total water for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} total water for women. Di report note say water from food contribute around 19% of total water intake in di survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. Di US Institute of Medicine recommend say, on average, men for consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women for increase dia intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, and breastfeeding women for get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E still note say normally around 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while di rest come from drinking water and beverages (including caffeinated drinks).<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> Water dey leave di body through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase, and daily fluid needs fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey no get plenty impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds like pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria such as ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some solutes dey acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide necessary electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> Di biggest freshwater resource for di world wey suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. :::writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> :::writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====As a scientific standard==== For 7 April 1795, France define gram as “the exact weight of pure water wey get volume equal to cube wey each side be one-hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of melting ice.”<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey heavy pass am one thousand times, wey be the kilogram. Because of that, dem assign work make dem determine exactly the mass of one liter of water. Even though the official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—the scientists decide say dem go redefine the standard and do their measurements for the temperature wey water get its highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> The Kelvin temperature scale for the SI system originally base on the triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey base on the Boltzmann constant instead. The scale be absolute temperature scale wey get the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, wey dem first define according to the boiling point (set to {{convert|100|C}}) and melting point (set to {{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small amount of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) dey inside too. The percentage of these heavier isotopes be very small, but e still dey affect the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of that, standard water dey defined according to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] The human body get about 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get between 45% and 75%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend say adult men for take about {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water every day, while women for take about {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2" /> The exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this water people get from food and drinks, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Some medical publications support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for an average man, apart from extra needs caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress such as exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than their body need during exercise, and this fit put dem at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> The common claim say “person for drink eight glasses of water every day” no get strong scientific proof behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say extra water intake, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Taking enough fluids also dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] One of the first recommendations about water intake, wey the Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. National Research Council publish for 1945, talk say: “A normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity dey already inside prepared foods.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> The latest dietary reference intake report from the U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on survey data from the United States (including water from food), total water intake of {{convert|3.7|L}} for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} for women. The report also note say water from food contribute about 19% of total water intake in the survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Pregnant women and breastfeeding women especially need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. The U.S. Institute of Medicine recommend say men on average make dem consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women should increase their intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, while breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E also note say normally, about 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while the remaining part come from drinking water and other beverages, including caffeinated drinks.<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> The body dey remove water through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase and daily fluid requirements fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey get very few impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds such as pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria like ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some dissolved substances are acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide important electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> The biggest freshwater resource in the world suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> ====Washing==== {{excerpt|washing}} ====Transportation==== {{excerpt|maritime transport|only=paragraphs}} ====Chemical uses==== People dey use water plenty for chemical reactions as solvent or reactant, and less often as solute or catalyst. For inorganic reactions, water be common solvent wey fit dissolve many ionic compounds plus other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds wey closely resemble water. For organic reactions, people no usually use water as reaction solvent because e no dey dissolve many reactants well and because e be amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Even so, these properties sometimes dey useful. Scientists also observe say water fit speed up Diels-Alder reactions. Supercritical water too recently become important topic for research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water fit burn organic pollutants efficiently. ====Heat exchange==== Water and steam be common fluids for heat exchange because dem easy to get and because water get high heat capacity, whether for cooling or heating. Cool water fit even come naturally from lakes or the sea. Water dey especially effective for transporting heat through vaporization and condensation because e get large latent heat of vaporization. One disadvantage be say metals wey industries commonly use, such as steel and copper, dey oxidize faster when untreated water and steam dey involved. For almost all thermal power stations, dem dey use water as the working fluid (inside a closed-loop system between boiler, steam turbine, and condenser) and also as coolant (to transfer waste heat into a water body or remove am through evaporation in a cooling tower). For the United States, cooling power plants be the biggest use of water.<ref name="Water Use in the United States">[http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html "Water Use in the United States"], ''National Atlas''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814045418/http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html |date=14 August 2009 }}</ref> For the nuclear power industry, water fit also serve as neutron moderator. For most nuclear reactors, water be both coolant and moderator. This provide some passive safety benefit because if water leave the reactor, e also slow down the nuclear reaction. However, other methods dey preferred for stopping reactions completely, and dem prefer make the nuclear core stay covered with water so cooling go continue properly. ====Fire considerations==== [[File:MH-60S Helicopter dumps water onto Fire.jpg|right|thumb|Water is used for fighting wildfires.]] Water get high heat of vaporization and e be relatively inert, so e be good fire-extinguishing fluid. As water evaporate, e carry heat away from the fire. But e dey dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents because many organic materials float on water, and the water fit spread the burning liquid. When people dey use water for fire fighting, dem also need consider the danger of steam explosions, wey fit happen when water touch very hot fires in enclosed places. Another danger be hydrogen explosions, wey fit happen when substances wey react with water, such as some metals or very hot carbon materials like coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, break down water and produce water gas. The power of such explosions show clearly during the Chernobyl disaster, although for that case the water no come from fire-fighting but from the reactor’s own cooling system. A steam explosion happen when the reactor core overheat seriously and make water turn suddenly into steam. A hydrogen explosion may also have happened because of the reaction between steam and hot zirconium. Some metallic oxides, especially those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, release so much heat when dem react with water that fire hazards fit develop. The alkaline earth oxide quicklime, also known as calcium oxide, be one mass-produced substance wey people often transport inside paper bags. If water soak the bags, dem fit catch fire because the contents react with water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet: Quicklime |url=https://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |publisher=Lhoist North America |date=6 August 2012 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705030051/http://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> iufzulp4ascrtlhxm8wbmoocg4skbj6 101945 101936 2026-06-11T23:06:19Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Correction of section 101945 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> ====As a scientific standard==== On 7 April 1795, dem define di gram for France say e go equal "di exact weight of one volume of pure water wey equal cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and for di temperature wey ice dey melt".<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey be one thousand times heavier, wey be di kilogram. So dem assign scientists make dem determine di exact mass of one liter of water. Even though di official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—di scientists decide say dem go redefine di standard and do dia measurements for di temperature where water get ein highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> Di Kelvin temperature scale of di SI system bin dey based on di triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey based on di Boltzmann constant instead. Di scale be absolute temperature scale wey get di same increment as di Celsius temperature scale, wey originally dem define according to di boiling point ({{convert|100|C}}) and melting point ({{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain di isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small quantity of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) too dey inside. Di percentage of these heavier isotopes small well-well, but e still dey affect water ein properties. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of dat, dem define standard water according to di Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] Di human body contain around 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get anywhere between 45% and 75% water for dia body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Di U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily intake of {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water for adult men and {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}} for women.<ref name=":2" /> Di exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and oda factors. Most of this water intake come from food and beverages, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Medical literature often support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for average adult man, excluding extra requirements caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress from activities like exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than dia body need during exercise, and this fit put dem for risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit even cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> Di popular claim say "person for drink eight glasses of water every day" no get strong scientific evidence behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say drinking extra water, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Adequate fluid intake too dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] Di original recommendation for water intake wey di Food and Nutrition Board of di U.S. National Research Council make for 1945 talk say: "Normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity already dey inside prepared foods."<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> Di latest dietary reference intake report from di U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on median total water intake from U.S. survey data (including food sources): {{convert|3.7|L}} total water for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} total water for women. Di report note say water from food contribute around 19% of total water intake in di survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. Di US Institute of Medicine recommend say, on average, men for consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women for increase dia intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, and breastfeeding women for get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E still note say normally around 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while di rest come from drinking water and beverages (including caffeinated drinks).<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> Water dey leave di body through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase, and daily fluid needs fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey no get plenty impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds like pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria such as ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some solutes dey acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide necessary electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> Di biggest freshwater resource for di world wey suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====As a scientific standard==== For 7 April 1795, France define gram as “the exact weight of pure water wey get volume equal to cube wey each side be one-hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of melting ice.”<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey heavy pass am one thousand times, wey be the kilogram. Because of that, dem assign work make dem determine exactly the mass of one liter of water. Even though the official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—the scientists decide say dem go redefine the standard and do their measurements for the temperature wey water get its highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> The Kelvin temperature scale for the SI system originally base on the triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey base on the Boltzmann constant instead. The scale be absolute temperature scale wey get the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, wey dem first define according to the boiling point (set to {{convert|100|C}}) and melting point (set to {{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small amount of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) dey inside too. The percentage of these heavier isotopes be very small, but e still dey affect the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of that, standard water dey defined according to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] The human body get about 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get between 45% and 75%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend say adult men for take about {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water every day, while women for take about {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2" /> The exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this water people get from food and drinks, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Some medical publications support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for an average man, apart from extra needs caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress such as exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than their body need during exercise, and this fit put dem at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> The common claim say “person for drink eight glasses of water every day” no get strong scientific proof behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say extra water intake, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Taking enough fluids also dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] One of the first recommendations about water intake, wey the Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. National Research Council publish for 1945, talk say: “A normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity dey already inside prepared foods.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> The latest dietary reference intake report from the U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on survey data from the United States (including water from food), total water intake of {{convert|3.7|L}} for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} for women. The report also note say water from food contribute about 19% of total water intake in the survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Pregnant women and breastfeeding women especially need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. The U.S. Institute of Medicine recommend say men on average make dem consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women should increase their intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, while breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E also note say normally, about 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while the remaining part come from drinking water and other beverages, including caffeinated drinks.<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> The body dey remove water through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase and daily fluid requirements fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey get very few impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds such as pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria like ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some dissolved substances are acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide important electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> The biggest freshwater resource in the world suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> ====Washing==== {{excerpt|washing}} ====Transportation==== {{excerpt|maritime transport|only=paragraphs}} ====Chemical uses==== People dey use water plenty for chemical reactions as solvent or reactant, and less often as solute or catalyst. For inorganic reactions, water be common solvent wey fit dissolve many ionic compounds plus other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds wey closely resemble water. For organic reactions, people no usually use water as reaction solvent because e no dey dissolve many reactants well and because e be amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Even so, these properties sometimes dey useful. Scientists also observe say water fit speed up Diels-Alder reactions. Supercritical water too recently become important topic for research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water fit burn organic pollutants efficiently. ====Heat exchange==== Water and steam be common fluids for heat exchange because dem easy to get and because water get high heat capacity, whether for cooling or heating. Cool water fit even come naturally from lakes or the sea. Water dey especially effective for transporting heat through vaporization and condensation because e get large latent heat of vaporization. One disadvantage be say metals wey industries commonly use, such as steel and copper, dey oxidize faster when untreated water and steam dey involved. For almost all thermal power stations, dem dey use water as the working fluid (inside a closed-loop system between boiler, steam turbine, and condenser) and also as coolant (to transfer waste heat into a water body or remove am through evaporation in a cooling tower). For the United States, cooling power plants be the biggest use of water.<ref name="Water Use in the United States">[http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html "Water Use in the United States"], ''National Atlas''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814045418/http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html |date=14 August 2009 }}</ref> For the nuclear power industry, water fit also serve as neutron moderator. For most nuclear reactors, water be both coolant and moderator. This provide some passive safety benefit because if water leave the reactor, e also slow down the nuclear reaction. However, other methods dey preferred for stopping reactions completely, and dem prefer make the nuclear core stay covered with water so cooling go continue properly. ====Fire considerations==== [[File:MH-60S Helicopter dumps water onto Fire.jpg|right|thumb|Water is used for fighting wildfires.]] Water get high heat of vaporization and e be relatively inert, so e be good fire-extinguishing fluid. As water evaporate, e carry heat away from the fire. But e dey dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents because many organic materials float on water, and the water fit spread the burning liquid. When people dey use water for fire fighting, dem also need consider the danger of steam explosions, wey fit happen when water touch very hot fires in enclosed places. Another danger be hydrogen explosions, wey fit happen when substances wey react with water, such as some metals or very hot carbon materials like coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, break down water and produce water gas. The power of such explosions show clearly during the Chernobyl disaster, although for that case the water no come from fire-fighting but from the reactor’s own cooling system. A steam explosion happen when the reactor core overheat seriously and make water turn suddenly into steam. A hydrogen explosion may also have happened because of the reaction between steam and hot zirconium. Some metallic oxides, especially those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, release so much heat when dem react with water that fire hazards fit develop. The alkaline earth oxide quicklime, also known as calcium oxide, be one mass-produced substance wey people often transport inside paper bags. If water soak the bags, dem fit catch fire because the contents react with water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet: Quicklime |url=https://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |publisher=Lhoist North America |date=6 August 2012 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705030051/http://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> foarpplhvd7xapk4gndscudsw0mlozv 101954 101945 2026-06-11T23:11:24Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 101954 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> ====As a scientific standard==== On 7 April 1795, dem define di gram for France say e go equal "di exact weight of one volume of pure water wey equal cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and for di temperature wey ice dey melt".<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey be one thousand times heavier, wey be di kilogram. So dem assign scientists make dem determine di exact mass of one liter of water. Even though di official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—di scientists decide say dem go redefine di standard and do dia measurements for di temperature where water get ein highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> Di Kelvin temperature scale of di SI system bin dey based on di triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey based on di Boltzmann constant instead. Di scale be absolute temperature scale wey get di same increment as di Celsius temperature scale, wey originally dem define according to di boiling point ({{convert|100|C}}) and melting point ({{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain di isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small quantity of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) too dey inside. Di percentage of these heavier isotopes small well-well, but e still dey affect water ein properties. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of dat, dem define standard water according to di Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] Di human body contain around 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get anywhere between 45% and 75% water for dia body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Di U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily intake of {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water for adult men and {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}} for women.<ref name=":2" /> Di exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and oda factors. Most of this water intake come from food and beverages, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Medical literature often support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for average adult man, excluding extra requirements caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress from activities like exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than dia body need during exercise, and this fit put dem for risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit even cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> Di popular claim say "person for drink eight glasses of water every day" no get strong scientific evidence behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say drinking extra water, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Adequate fluid intake too dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] Di original recommendation for water intake wey di Food and Nutrition Board of di U.S. National Research Council make for 1945 talk say: "Normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity already dey inside prepared foods."<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> Di latest dietary reference intake report from di U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on median total water intake from U.S. survey data (including food sources): {{convert|3.7|L}} total water for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} total water for women. Di report note say water from food contribute around 19% of total water intake in di survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. Di US Institute of Medicine recommend say, on average, men for consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women for increase dia intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, and breastfeeding women for get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E still note say normally around 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while di rest come from drinking water and beverages (including caffeinated drinks).<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> Water dey leave di body through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase, and daily fluid needs fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey no get plenty impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds like pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria such as ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some solutes dey acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide necessary electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> Di biggest freshwater resource for di world wey suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====As a scientific standard==== For 7 April 1795, France define gram as “the exact weight of pure water wey get volume equal to cube wey each side be one-hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of melting ice.”<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey heavy pass am one thousand times, wey be the kilogram. Because of that, dem assign work make dem determine exactly the mass of one liter of water. Even though the official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—the scientists decide say dem go redefine the standard and do their measurements for the temperature wey water get its highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> The Kelvin temperature scale for the SI system originally base on the triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey base on the Boltzmann constant instead. The scale be absolute temperature scale wey get the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, wey dem first define according to the boiling point (set to {{convert|100|C}}) and melting point (set to {{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small amount of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) dey inside too. The percentage of these heavier isotopes be very small, but e still dey affect the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of that, standard water dey defined according to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] The human body get about 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get between 45% and 75%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend say adult men for take about {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water every day, while women for take about {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2" /> The exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this water people get from food and drinks, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Some medical publications support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for an average man, apart from extra needs caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress such as exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than their body need during exercise, and this fit put dem at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> The common claim say “person for drink eight glasses of water every day” no get strong scientific proof behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say extra water intake, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Taking enough fluids also dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] One of the first recommendations about water intake, wey the Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. National Research Council publish for 1945, talk say: “A normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity dey already inside prepared foods.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> The latest dietary reference intake report from the U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on survey data from the United States (including water from food), total water intake of {{convert|3.7|L}} for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} for women. The report also note say water from food contribute about 19% of total water intake in the survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Pregnant women and breastfeeding women especially need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. The U.S. Institute of Medicine recommend say men on average make dem consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women should increase their intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, while breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E also note say normally, about 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while the remaining part come from drinking water and other beverages, including caffeinated drinks.<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> The body dey remove water through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase and daily fluid requirements fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey get very few impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds such as pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria like ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some dissolved substances are acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide important electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> The biggest freshwater resource in the world suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> ====Washing==== {{excerpt|washing}} ====Transportation==== {{excerpt|maritime transport|only=paragraphs}} ====Chemical uses==== People dey use water plenty for chemical reactions as solvent or reactant, and less often as solute or catalyst. For inorganic reactions, water be common solvent wey fit dissolve many ionic compounds plus other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds wey closely resemble water. For organic reactions, people no usually use water as reaction solvent because e no dey dissolve many reactants well and because e be amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Even so, these properties sometimes dey useful. Scientists also observe say water fit speed up Diels-Alder reactions. Supercritical water too recently become important topic for research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water fit burn organic pollutants efficiently. ====Heat exchange==== Water and steam be common fluids for heat exchange because dem easy to get and because water get high heat capacity, whether for cooling or heating. Cool water fit even come naturally from lakes or the sea. Water dey especially effective for transporting heat through vaporization and condensation because e get large latent heat of vaporization. One disadvantage be say metals wey industries commonly use, such as steel and copper, dey oxidize faster when untreated water and steam dey involved. For almost all thermal power stations, dem dey use water as the working fluid (inside a closed-loop system between boiler, steam turbine, and condenser) and also as coolant (to transfer waste heat into a water body or remove am through evaporation in a cooling tower). For the United States, cooling power plants be the biggest use of water.<ref name="Water Use in the United States">[http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html "Water Use in the United States"], ''National Atlas''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814045418/http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html |date=14 August 2009 }}</ref> For the nuclear power industry, water fit also serve as neutron moderator. For most nuclear reactors, water be both coolant and moderator. This provide some passive safety benefit because if water leave the reactor, e also slow down the nuclear reaction. However, other methods dey preferred for stopping reactions completely, and dem prefer make the nuclear core stay covered with water so cooling go continue properly. ====Fire considerations==== [[File:MH-60S Helicopter dumps water onto Fire.jpg|right|thumb|Water is used for fighting wildfires.]] Water get high heat of vaporization and e be relatively inert, so e be good fire-extinguishing fluid. As water evaporate, e carry heat away from the fire. But e dey dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents because many organic materials float on water, and the water fit spread the burning liquid. When people dey use water for fire fighting, dem also need consider the danger of steam explosions, wey fit happen when water touch very hot fires in enclosed places. Another danger be hydrogen explosions, wey fit happen when substances wey react with water, such as some metals or very hot carbon materials like coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, break down water and produce water gas. The power of such explosions show clearly during the Chernobyl disaster, although for that case the water no come from fire-fighting but from the reactor’s own cooling system. A steam explosion happen when the reactor core overheat seriously and make water turn suddenly into steam. A hydrogen explosion may also have happened because of the reaction between steam and hot zirconium. Some metallic oxides, especially those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, release so much heat when dem react with water that fire hazards fit develop. The alkaline earth oxide quicklime, also known as calcium oxide, be one mass-produced substance wey people often transport inside paper bags. If water soak the bags, dem fit catch fire because the contents react with water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet: Quicklime |url=https://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |publisher=Lhoist North America |date=6 August 2012 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705030051/http://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ====Recreation==== {{Main|Water sport (recreation)}} [[File:Johny Cay.jpg|thumb|right|San Andrés island, Colombia]] Humans dey use water for plenty recreational activities, plus exercise and sports too. Some of dem be swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. Plus, some sports like ice hockey and ice skating dey happen on ice. Lakesides, beaches and water parks be popular places wey people dey go relax and enjoy themselves. Plenty people dey find the sound and look of flowing water very calming, and fountains plus other flowing-water structures dey serve as popular decorations. Some people too dey keep fish and other plants and animals inside aquariums or ponds for display, enjoyment and companionship. Humans also dey use water for snow sports such as skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, wey all require say the water dey low temperature either as ice or as crystallized snow. ====Water industry==== The water industry dey provide drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) for households and industries. Water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators too dey under development. Drinking water often dey come from springs, artificial borings (wells) for ground, or dem dey pump am from lakes and rivers. Building more wells for suitable places fit help increase water supply, as long as the aquifers fit provide enough water flow. Other water sources include rainwater collection. Water fit need purification before humans go fit drink am. This fit involve removing undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods include filtering with sand, wey mainly removes undissolved materials, while chlorination and boiling dey kill harmful microbes. Distillation dey perform all three functions. More advanced techniques such as reverse osmosis dey exist. Desalination of abundant seawater be a more expensive solution wey coastal arid climates dey use. Distribution of drinking water dey happen through municipal water systems, tanker deliveries, or as bottled water. Governments for many countries get programs wey dey distribute water to needy people free of charge. Another option be to reduce usage by reserving drinking (potable) water mainly for human consumption. For some cities like Hong Kong, dem dey use seawater extensively for flushing toilets across the whole city to conserve freshwater resources. Polluting water fit be the biggest misuse of water. As long as a pollutant limits other ways people fit use the water, e become waste of the resource, no matter the benefit to the polluter. Like other forms of pollution, this one no dey enter standard market cost accounting because dem dey treat am as externalities wey the market no fit properly account for. So other people dey pay the cost of water pollution, while profits from private companies no dey redistribute to the local people wey suffer from the pollution. Pharmaceuticals wey humans consume often end up inside waterways and fit negatively affect aquatic life if dem bioaccumulate and if dem no be biodegradable. Municipal and industrial wastewater usually dey receive treatment for wastewater treatment plants. Mitigation of polluted surface runoff dey happen through different prevention and treatment techniques. {{gallery |align=center |File:Water carrier in India.jpg|A water-carrier for India, 1882. For many places wey running water no dey available, people have to transport water by themselves. |File:TapWater-china.JPG|A manual water pump for China |File:Usine Bret MG 1648.jpg|Water purification facility |File:Reverse osmosis desalination plant.JPG|Reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant for Barcelona, Spain }} ====Industrial applications==== Plenty industrial processes depend on chemical reactions wey happen inside water, suspension of solids inside water slurries, or use of water to dissolve and extract substances, or to wash products and equipment. Processes such as mining, chemical pulping, pulp bleaching, paper manufacturing, textile production, dyeing, printing and cooling of power plants dey use large amounts of water. These activities require dedicated water sources and often cause serious water pollution. Water too dey play important role for power generation. Hydroelectricity be electricity wey come from hydropower. Hydroelectric power dey come from water wey dey drive a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity be low-cost, non-polluting and renewable energy source. The movement of water dey provide the energy. Usually, dem build dam for river, creating artificial lake behind am. Water wey flows out from the lake dey pass through turbines wey turn generators. {{wide image|200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-4.med.jpg|800px|Three Gorges Dam be the largest hydro-electric power station for the world.}} Dem dey use pressurized water for water blasting and water jet cutters. High-pressure water guns dey provide very precise cutting. E dey work very well, e relatively safe, and e no dey harm the environment. Dem also dey use am to cool machinery and prevent overheating, or stop saw blades from overheating. Water too dey play role inside many industrial processes and machines, such as steam turbines and heat exchangers, apart from its use as chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial activities be water pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry needs pure water for many applications, and dey use different purification techniques both for water supply and discharge. The digital sector, especially Artificial intelligence, dey use huge amounts of water. Because of that, AI expansion fit threaten global and national water security.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kenny |first1=Rich |last2=Lunj |first2=Avinash |last3=Kis |first3=Alexandra |title=AI’s thirst for water |url=https://sustainableict.blog.gov.uk/2025/09/17/ais-thirst-for-water/ |website=GOV UK |publisher=the Government Digital Sustainability Alliance (GDSA) |access-date=5 February 2026}}</ref> ====Food processing==== [[File:Cuisson des pates.jpg|thumb|Water fit be used to cook foods such as noodles.]] [[File:Sterilewater.jpg|thumb|upright|Sterile water for injection]] Boiling, steaming and simmering be popular cooking methods wey often require food to stay inside water or steam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|title=A Course in Household Arts: Part I|last=Duff|first=Loretto Basil|date=1916|publisher=Whitcomb & Barrows|access-date=3 December 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164100/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem also dey use water for dishwashing. Water too dey play many important roles inside food science. Solutes such as salts and sugars wey dey inside water fit affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water dey change because of solutes and air pressure, and air pressure itself dey affected by altitude. Water dey boil at lower temperatures for places wey air pressure low because of higher elevation. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water dey increase water boiling point by {{convert|0.51|C-change|3}}, while one mole of salt per kilogram dey increase am by {{convert|1.02|C-change|3}}. In the same way, increasing dissolved particles dey lower the freezing point of water.<ref name="vaclacik">{{cite book |title=Essentials of Food Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |year=2007 |last1=Vaclavik |first1=Vickie A. |last2=Christian |first2=Elizabeth W. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-69939-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164352/https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |url-status=live }}</ref> Solutes inside water too dey affect water activity, and that one dey influence plenty chemical reactions plus microbial growth inside food.<ref name="deman">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |title=Principles of Food Chemistry |year=1999 |last=DeMan |first=John M. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-8342-1234-3 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414185952/https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water activity fit be described as the ratio between vapor pressure of water inside a solution and vapor pressure of pure water.<ref name="vaclacik" /> Solutes inside water dey lower water activity, and this be important because most bacteria growth stops when water activity become very low.<ref name="deman" /> Microbial growth no only affect food safety, but e also affects preservation and shelf life of food. Water hardness too be important factor for food processing, and dem fit alter or treat am by using chemical ion exchange systems. E fit greatly affect product quality and sanitation. Water hardness dey classified according to the concentration of calcium carbonate inside the water. Water be classified as soft if e contains less than 100 mg/L (UK)<ref name="DEFRA">{{cite web |url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |title=Map showing the rate of hardness in mg/L as Calcium carbonate in England and Wales |publisher=DEFRA Drinking Water Inspectorate |date=2009 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529054911/http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> or less than 60 mg/L (US).<ref name="USGS">{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |publisher=US Geological Service |title=Water hardness |date=8 April 2014 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518204909/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to report wey Water Footprint organization publish for 2010, one kilogram of beef requires {{convert|15|e3L|e3impgal+e3usgal}} of water. However, the authors make am clear say this be global average and local conditions fit affect the amount of water wey beef production go use.<ref>{{cite report |title=The green, blue and grey water footprint of farm animals and animal products, Value of Water |series=Research Report Series |volume=1|issue=48 |url=http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |publisher=UNESCO – IHE Institute for Water Education |access-date=30 January 2014 |first1=M. M. |last1=Mekonnen |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |date=December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527104135/http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ====Medical use==== Water for injection dey on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |title=WHO Model List of EssentialMedicines |date=October 2013 |website=World Health Organization |access-date=22 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423005004/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |archive-date=23 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Distribution in nature== ===In the universe=== [[File:Band 5 ALMA receiver.jpg|thumb|Band 5 ALMA receiver be instrument wey dem design specially to detect water for the universe.<ref>{{cite web |title=ALMA Greatly Improves Capacity to Search for Water in Universe |url=http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |access-date=20 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723070436/http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |archive-date=23 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] A large part of the water for the universe dey form as byproduct of star formation. When stars dey form, strong outward winds of gas and dust dey accompany the process. When this material eventually hits the surrounding gas, the shock waves wey form dey compress and heat the gas. The water wey scientists observe then dey form quickly inside this warm and dense gas.<ref>Melnick, Gary, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and Neufeld, David, Johns Hopkins University quoted in: {{cite web |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |title=Discover of Water Vapor Near Orion Nebula Suggests Possible Origin of H20 in Solar System (sic) |date=23 April 1998 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000116054013/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |archive-date=16 January 2000 }} {{cite news |url=http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |title=Space Cloud Holds Enough Water to Fill Earth's Oceans 1 Million Times |date=9 April 1998 |publisher=Headlines@Hopkins, JHU |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109171410/http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |archive-date=9 November 2007 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |title=Water, Water Everywhere: Radio telescope finds water is common in universe |date=25 February 1999 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519141432/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |archive-date=19 May 2011 |url-status=live }} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160715053715/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html archive link])</ref> On 22 July 2011, one report describe discovery of huge water-vapor cloud wey contain “140 trillion times more water than all Earth oceans combined” around one quasar located 12 billion light years away from Earth. According to the researchers, the discovery show say water don dey common for the universe for almost all of its existence.<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=NASA |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Space.com |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scientists don detect water inside interstellar clouds within the Milky Way.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |title=Faint Echoes, Distant Stars: The Science and Politics of Finding Life Beyond Earth |last=Bova |first=Ben |year=2009 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-06-185448-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164517/https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water likely dey plenty for other galaxies too because hydrogen and oxygen, wey be the components of water, be among the most abundant elements for the universe. Based on models of the formation and evolution of the Solar System and other star systems, most other planetary systems likely get similar ingredients. ozq424ey5k6bqbi6z2ow8b5vcf6ffxo 101963 101954 2026-06-11T23:15:58Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 101963 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> ====As a scientific standard==== On 7 April 1795, dem define di gram for France say e go equal "di exact weight of one volume of pure water wey equal cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and for di temperature wey ice dey melt".<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey be one thousand times heavier, wey be di kilogram. So dem assign scientists make dem determine di exact mass of one liter of water. Even though di official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—di scientists decide say dem go redefine di standard and do dia measurements for di temperature where water get ein highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> Di Kelvin temperature scale of di SI system bin dey based on di triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey based on di Boltzmann constant instead. Di scale be absolute temperature scale wey get di same increment as di Celsius temperature scale, wey originally dem define according to di boiling point ({{convert|100|C}}) and melting point ({{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain di isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small quantity of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) too dey inside. Di percentage of these heavier isotopes small well-well, but e still dey affect water ein properties. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of dat, dem define standard water according to di Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] Di human body contain around 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get anywhere between 45% and 75% water for dia body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Di U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily intake of {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water for adult men and {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}} for women.<ref name=":2" /> Di exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and oda factors. Most of this water intake come from food and beverages, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Medical literature often support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for average adult man, excluding extra requirements caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress from activities like exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than dia body need during exercise, and this fit put dem for risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit even cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> Di popular claim say "person for drink eight glasses of water every day" no get strong scientific evidence behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say drinking extra water, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Adequate fluid intake too dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] Di original recommendation for water intake wey di Food and Nutrition Board of di U.S. National Research Council make for 1945 talk say: "Normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity already dey inside prepared foods."<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> Di latest dietary reference intake report from di U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on median total water intake from U.S. survey data (including food sources): {{convert|3.7|L}} total water for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} total water for women. Di report note say water from food contribute around 19% of total water intake in di survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. Di US Institute of Medicine recommend say, on average, men for consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women for increase dia intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, and breastfeeding women for get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E still note say normally around 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while di rest come from drinking water and beverages (including caffeinated drinks).<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> Water dey leave di body through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase, and daily fluid needs fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey no get plenty impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds like pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria such as ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some solutes dey acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide necessary electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> Di biggest freshwater resource for di world wey suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====As a scientific standard==== For 7 April 1795, France define gram as “the exact weight of pure water wey get volume equal to cube wey each side be one-hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of melting ice.”<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey heavy pass am one thousand times, wey be the kilogram. Because of that, dem assign work make dem determine exactly the mass of one liter of water. Even though the official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—the scientists decide say dem go redefine the standard and do their measurements for the temperature wey water get its highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> The Kelvin temperature scale for the SI system originally base on the triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey base on the Boltzmann constant instead. The scale be absolute temperature scale wey get the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, wey dem first define according to the boiling point (set to {{convert|100|C}}) and melting point (set to {{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small amount of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) dey inside too. The percentage of these heavier isotopes be very small, but e still dey affect the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of that, standard water dey defined according to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] The human body get about 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get between 45% and 75%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend say adult men for take about {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water every day, while women for take about {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2" /> The exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this water people get from food and drinks, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Some medical publications support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for an average man, apart from extra needs caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress such as exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than their body need during exercise, and this fit put dem at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> The common claim say “person for drink eight glasses of water every day” no get strong scientific proof behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say extra water intake, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Taking enough fluids also dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] One of the first recommendations about water intake, wey the Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. National Research Council publish for 1945, talk say: “A normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity dey already inside prepared foods.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> The latest dietary reference intake report from the U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on survey data from the United States (including water from food), total water intake of {{convert|3.7|L}} for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} for women. The report also note say water from food contribute about 19% of total water intake in the survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Pregnant women and breastfeeding women especially need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. The U.S. Institute of Medicine recommend say men on average make dem consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women should increase their intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, while breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E also note say normally, about 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while the remaining part come from drinking water and other beverages, including caffeinated drinks.<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> The body dey remove water through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase and daily fluid requirements fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey get very few impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds such as pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria like ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some dissolved substances are acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide important electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> The biggest freshwater resource in the world suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> ====Washing==== {{excerpt|washing}} ====Transportation==== {{excerpt|maritime transport|only=paragraphs}} ====Chemical uses==== People dey use water plenty for chemical reactions as solvent or reactant, and less often as solute or catalyst. For inorganic reactions, water be common solvent wey fit dissolve many ionic compounds plus other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds wey closely resemble water. For organic reactions, people no usually use water as reaction solvent because e no dey dissolve many reactants well and because e be amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Even so, these properties sometimes dey useful. Scientists also observe say water fit speed up Diels-Alder reactions. Supercritical water too recently become important topic for research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water fit burn organic pollutants efficiently. ====Heat exchange==== Water and steam be common fluids for heat exchange because dem easy to get and because water get high heat capacity, whether for cooling or heating. Cool water fit even come naturally from lakes or the sea. Water dey especially effective for transporting heat through vaporization and condensation because e get large latent heat of vaporization. One disadvantage be say metals wey industries commonly use, such as steel and copper, dey oxidize faster when untreated water and steam dey involved. For almost all thermal power stations, dem dey use water as the working fluid (inside a closed-loop system between boiler, steam turbine, and condenser) and also as coolant (to transfer waste heat into a water body or remove am through evaporation in a cooling tower). For the United States, cooling power plants be the biggest use of water.<ref name="Water Use in the United States">[http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html "Water Use in the United States"], ''National Atlas''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814045418/http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html |date=14 August 2009 }}</ref> For the nuclear power industry, water fit also serve as neutron moderator. For most nuclear reactors, water be both coolant and moderator. This provide some passive safety benefit because if water leave the reactor, e also slow down the nuclear reaction. However, other methods dey preferred for stopping reactions completely, and dem prefer make the nuclear core stay covered with water so cooling go continue properly. ====Fire considerations==== [[File:MH-60S Helicopter dumps water onto Fire.jpg|right|thumb|Water is used for fighting wildfires.]] Water get high heat of vaporization and e be relatively inert, so e be good fire-extinguishing fluid. As water evaporate, e carry heat away from the fire. But e dey dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents because many organic materials float on water, and the water fit spread the burning liquid. When people dey use water for fire fighting, dem also need consider the danger of steam explosions, wey fit happen when water touch very hot fires in enclosed places. Another danger be hydrogen explosions, wey fit happen when substances wey react with water, such as some metals or very hot carbon materials like coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, break down water and produce water gas. The power of such explosions show clearly during the Chernobyl disaster, although for that case the water no come from fire-fighting but from the reactor’s own cooling system. A steam explosion happen when the reactor core overheat seriously and make water turn suddenly into steam. A hydrogen explosion may also have happened because of the reaction between steam and hot zirconium. Some metallic oxides, especially those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, release so much heat when dem react with water that fire hazards fit develop. The alkaline earth oxide quicklime, also known as calcium oxide, be one mass-produced substance wey people often transport inside paper bags. If water soak the bags, dem fit catch fire because the contents react with water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet: Quicklime |url=https://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |publisher=Lhoist North America |date=6 August 2012 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705030051/http://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ====Recreation==== {{Main|Water sport (recreation)}} [[File:Johny Cay.jpg|thumb|right|San Andrés island, Colombia]] Humans dey use water for plenty recreational activities, plus exercise and sports too. Some of dem be swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. Plus, some sports like ice hockey and ice skating dey happen on ice. Lakesides, beaches and water parks be popular places wey people dey go relax and enjoy themselves. Plenty people dey find the sound and look of flowing water very calming, and fountains plus other flowing-water structures dey serve as popular decorations. Some people too dey keep fish and other plants and animals inside aquariums or ponds for display, enjoyment and companionship. Humans also dey use water for snow sports such as skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, wey all require say the water dey low temperature either as ice or as crystallized snow. ====Water industry==== The water industry dey provide drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) for households and industries. Water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators too dey under development. Drinking water often dey come from springs, artificial borings (wells) for ground, or dem dey pump am from lakes and rivers. Building more wells for suitable places fit help increase water supply, as long as the aquifers fit provide enough water flow. Other water sources include rainwater collection. Water fit need purification before humans go fit drink am. This fit involve removing undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods include filtering with sand, wey mainly removes undissolved materials, while chlorination and boiling dey kill harmful microbes. Distillation dey perform all three functions. More advanced techniques such as reverse osmosis dey exist. Desalination of abundant seawater be a more expensive solution wey coastal arid climates dey use. Distribution of drinking water dey happen through municipal water systems, tanker deliveries, or as bottled water. Governments for many countries get programs wey dey distribute water to needy people free of charge. Another option be to reduce usage by reserving drinking (potable) water mainly for human consumption. For some cities like Hong Kong, dem dey use seawater extensively for flushing toilets across the whole city to conserve freshwater resources. Polluting water fit be the biggest misuse of water. As long as a pollutant limits other ways people fit use the water, e become waste of the resource, no matter the benefit to the polluter. Like other forms of pollution, this one no dey enter standard market cost accounting because dem dey treat am as externalities wey the market no fit properly account for. So other people dey pay the cost of water pollution, while profits from private companies no dey redistribute to the local people wey suffer from the pollution. Pharmaceuticals wey humans consume often end up inside waterways and fit negatively affect aquatic life if dem bioaccumulate and if dem no be biodegradable. Municipal and industrial wastewater usually dey receive treatment for wastewater treatment plants. Mitigation of polluted surface runoff dey happen through different prevention and treatment techniques. {{gallery |align=center |File:Water carrier in India.jpg|A water-carrier for India, 1882. For many places wey running water no dey available, people have to transport water by themselves. |File:TapWater-china.JPG|A manual water pump for China |File:Usine Bret MG 1648.jpg|Water purification facility |File:Reverse osmosis desalination plant.JPG|Reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant for Barcelona, Spain }} ====Industrial applications==== Plenty industrial processes depend on chemical reactions wey happen inside water, suspension of solids inside water slurries, or use of water to dissolve and extract substances, or to wash products and equipment. Processes such as mining, chemical pulping, pulp bleaching, paper manufacturing, textile production, dyeing, printing and cooling of power plants dey use large amounts of water. These activities require dedicated water sources and often cause serious water pollution. Water too dey play important role for power generation. Hydroelectricity be electricity wey come from hydropower. Hydroelectric power dey come from water wey dey drive a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity be low-cost, non-polluting and renewable energy source. The movement of water dey provide the energy. Usually, dem build dam for river, creating artificial lake behind am. Water wey flows out from the lake dey pass through turbines wey turn generators. {{wide image|200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-4.med.jpg|800px|Three Gorges Dam be the largest hydro-electric power station for the world.}} Dem dey use pressurized water for water blasting and water jet cutters. High-pressure water guns dey provide very precise cutting. E dey work very well, e relatively safe, and e no dey harm the environment. Dem also dey use am to cool machinery and prevent overheating, or stop saw blades from overheating. Water too dey play role inside many industrial processes and machines, such as steam turbines and heat exchangers, apart from its use as chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial activities be water pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry needs pure water for many applications, and dey use different purification techniques both for water supply and discharge. The digital sector, especially Artificial intelligence, dey use huge amounts of water. Because of that, AI expansion fit threaten global and national water security.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kenny |first1=Rich |last2=Lunj |first2=Avinash |last3=Kis |first3=Alexandra |title=AI’s thirst for water |url=https://sustainableict.blog.gov.uk/2025/09/17/ais-thirst-for-water/ |website=GOV UK |publisher=the Government Digital Sustainability Alliance (GDSA) |access-date=5 February 2026}}</ref> ====Food processing==== [[File:Cuisson des pates.jpg|thumb|Water fit be used to cook foods such as noodles.]] [[File:Sterilewater.jpg|thumb|upright|Sterile water for injection]] Boiling, steaming and simmering be popular cooking methods wey often require food to stay inside water or steam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|title=A Course in Household Arts: Part I|last=Duff|first=Loretto Basil|date=1916|publisher=Whitcomb & Barrows|access-date=3 December 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164100/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem also dey use water for dishwashing. Water too dey play many important roles inside food science. Solutes such as salts and sugars wey dey inside water fit affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water dey change because of solutes and air pressure, and air pressure itself dey affected by altitude. Water dey boil at lower temperatures for places wey air pressure low because of higher elevation. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water dey increase water boiling point by {{convert|0.51|C-change|3}}, while one mole of salt per kilogram dey increase am by {{convert|1.02|C-change|3}}. In the same way, increasing dissolved particles dey lower the freezing point of water.<ref name="vaclacik">{{cite book |title=Essentials of Food Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |year=2007 |last1=Vaclavik |first1=Vickie A. |last2=Christian |first2=Elizabeth W. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-69939-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164352/https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |url-status=live }}</ref> Solutes inside water too dey affect water activity, and that one dey influence plenty chemical reactions plus microbial growth inside food.<ref name="deman">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |title=Principles of Food Chemistry |year=1999 |last=DeMan |first=John M. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-8342-1234-3 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414185952/https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water activity fit be described as the ratio between vapor pressure of water inside a solution and vapor pressure of pure water.<ref name="vaclacik" /> Solutes inside water dey lower water activity, and this be important because most bacteria growth stops when water activity become very low.<ref name="deman" /> Microbial growth no only affect food safety, but e also affects preservation and shelf life of food. Water hardness too be important factor for food processing, and dem fit alter or treat am by using chemical ion exchange systems. E fit greatly affect product quality and sanitation. Water hardness dey classified according to the concentration of calcium carbonate inside the water. Water be classified as soft if e contains less than 100 mg/L (UK)<ref name="DEFRA">{{cite web |url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |title=Map showing the rate of hardness in mg/L as Calcium carbonate in England and Wales |publisher=DEFRA Drinking Water Inspectorate |date=2009 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529054911/http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> or less than 60 mg/L (US).<ref name="USGS">{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |publisher=US Geological Service |title=Water hardness |date=8 April 2014 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518204909/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to report wey Water Footprint organization publish for 2010, one kilogram of beef requires {{convert|15|e3L|e3impgal+e3usgal}} of water. However, the authors make am clear say this be global average and local conditions fit affect the amount of water wey beef production go use.<ref>{{cite report |title=The green, blue and grey water footprint of farm animals and animal products, Value of Water |series=Research Report Series |volume=1|issue=48 |url=http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |publisher=UNESCO – IHE Institute for Water Education |access-date=30 January 2014 |first1=M. M. |last1=Mekonnen |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |date=December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527104135/http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ====Medical use==== Water for injection dey on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |title=WHO Model List of EssentialMedicines |date=October 2013 |website=World Health Organization |access-date=22 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423005004/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |archive-date=23 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Distribution in nature== ===In the universe=== [[File:Band 5 ALMA receiver.jpg|thumb|Band 5 ALMA receiver be instrument wey dem design specially to detect water for the universe.<ref>{{cite web |title=ALMA Greatly Improves Capacity to Search for Water in Universe |url=http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |access-date=20 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723070436/http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |archive-date=23 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] A large part of the water for the universe dey form as byproduct of star formation. When stars dey form, strong outward winds of gas and dust dey accompany the process. When this material eventually hits the surrounding gas, the shock waves wey form dey compress and heat the gas. The water wey scientists observe then dey form quickly inside this warm and dense gas.<ref>Melnick, Gary, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and Neufeld, David, Johns Hopkins University quoted in: {{cite web |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |title=Discover of Water Vapor Near Orion Nebula Suggests Possible Origin of H20 in Solar System (sic) |date=23 April 1998 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000116054013/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |archive-date=16 January 2000 }} {{cite news |url=http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |title=Space Cloud Holds Enough Water to Fill Earth's Oceans 1 Million Times |date=9 April 1998 |publisher=Headlines@Hopkins, JHU |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109171410/http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |archive-date=9 November 2007 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |title=Water, Water Everywhere: Radio telescope finds water is common in universe |date=25 February 1999 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519141432/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |archive-date=19 May 2011 |url-status=live }} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160715053715/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html archive link])</ref> On 22 July 2011, one report describe discovery of huge water-vapor cloud wey contain “140 trillion times more water than all Earth oceans combined” around one quasar located 12 billion light years away from Earth. According to the researchers, the discovery show say water don dey common for the universe for almost all of its existence.<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=NASA |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Space.com |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scientists don detect water inside interstellar clouds within the Milky Way.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |title=Faint Echoes, Distant Stars: The Science and Politics of Finding Life Beyond Earth |last=Bova |first=Ben |year=2009 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-06-185448-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164517/https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water likely dey plenty for other galaxies too because hydrogen and oxygen, wey be the components of water, be among the most abundant elements for the universe. Based on models of the formation and evolution of the Solar System and other star systems, most other planetary systems likely get similar ingredients. :::writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====Water vapor==== Water dey exist as vapor for: Atmosphere of the Sun: e dey inside for small trace amounts.<ref name=Solanki1994>{{cite journal |last1=Solanki |first1=S.K. |last2=Livingston |first2=W. |last3=Ayres |first3=T. |year=1994 |title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pmid=17748350 |volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66 |bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S |doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64 |s2cid=27696504 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030222/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, plus plenty water for Mercury ein exosphere.<ref name="planetary society">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |title=MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere |access-date=5 July 2008 |publisher=Planetary Society |date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034624/http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%.<ref name=Bertaux2007>{{cite journal |last=Bertaux |first=Jean-Loup |title=A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=450 |pages=646–649 |doi=10.1038/nature05974 |bibcode=2007Natur.450..646B |pmid=18046397 |issue=7170 |author2=Vandaele, Ann-Carine |last3=Korablev |first3=Oleg |last4=Villard |first4=E. |last5=Fedorova |first5=A. |last6=Fussen |first6=D. |last7=Quémerais |first7=E. |last8=Belyaev |first8=D. |last9=Mahieux |first9=A. |hdl=2268/29200 |s2cid=4421875 |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122145/https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Earth's atmosphere: about 0.40% for the whole atmosphere, but normally 1–4% near the surface. Atmosphere of the Moon: e dey inside for small trace amounts.<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |last1=Sridharan |first1=R. |first2=S.M. |last2=Ahmed |first3=Tirtha Pratim |last3=Dasa |first4=P. |last4=Sreelathaa |first5=P. |last5=Pradeepkumara |first6=Neha |last6=Naika |first7=Gogulapati |last7=Supriya |year=2010 |page=947 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%.<ref name="Rapp2012">{{cite book |author=Rapp, Donald |title=Use of Extraterrestrial Resources for Human Space Missions to Moon or Mars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-32762-9 |page=78 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715154349/https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Atmosphere of Ceres.<ref name="Kuppers2014">{{cite journal |last1=Küppers |first1=M. |last2=O'Rourke |first2=L. |last3=Bockelée-Morvan |first3=D.|author3-link=Dominique Bockelée-Morvan |last4=Zakharov |first4=V. |last5=Lee |first5=S. |last6=Von Allmen |first6=P. |last7=Carry |first7=B. |last8=Teyssier |first8=D. |last9=Marston |first9=A. |last10=Müller |first10=T. |last11=Crovisier |first11=J. |last12=Barucci |first12=M.A. |last13=Moreno |first13=R. |title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres |journal=Nature |volume=505 |issue=7484 |date=23 January 2014 |pages=525–527|doi=10.1038/nature12918 |pmid=24451541 |bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|s2cid=4448395 }}</ref> Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1951-5 |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Wong |first2=Ah-San |year=2005 |title=Coupled Clouds and Chemistry of the Giant Planets – A Case for Multiprobes |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=116 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–136 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |bibcode=2005SSRv..116..121A |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722074717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live |hdl=2027.42/43766 |s2cid=31037195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Water for Jupiter mostly dey as ice, and e dey for ein moon Europa too.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053143/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Atmosphere of Saturn: water mostly dey as ice. Enceladus get about 91% water vapor plume,<ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121254 |title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume |year=2006 |author=Hansen |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1422–1425 |pmid=16527971 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H |author2=C.J.|last3=Stewart |first3=AI |last4=Colwell |first4=J |last5=Hendrix |first5=A |last6=Pryor |first6=W |last7=Shemansky |first7=D |last8=West |first8=R|s2cid=2954801 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132849/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> and Dione fit get underground ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez-Maes |first=Sophia |date=January 11, 2017 |title=Solid Evidence for Liquid Water on Dione |url=https://www.yalescientific.org/2017/01/solid-evidence-for-liquid-water-on-dione/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Yale Scientific Magazine}}</ref> Atmosphere of Uranus: water vapor dey inside for very small amounts below 50 bar. Atmosphere of Neptune: water dey for the deeper layers.<ref name=hubbard>{{cite journal |last=Hubbard |first=W.B. |title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry |journal=Science |year=1997 |volume=275 |issue=5304 |pages=1279–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279 |pmid=9064785|s2cid=36248590 }}</ref> Extrasolar planet atmospheres: water vapor don dey detected for planets like HD 189733 b,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html Water Found on Distant Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716081124/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html |date=16 July 2007 }} 12 July 2007 By Laura Blue, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> HD 209458 b,<ref name="Space.com water">[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230065702/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html |date=30 December 2010 }} – Space.com</ref> Tau Boötis b,<ref>{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1402.0846|last1 = Lockwood|first1 = Alexandra C|title = Near-IR Direct Detection of Water Vapor in Tau Boo B|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 783|issue = 2|pages = L29|last2 = Johnson|first2 = John A|last3 = Bender|first3 = Chad F|last4 = Carr|first4 = John S|last5 = Barman|first5 = Travis|last6 = Richert|first6 = Alexander J.W.|last7 = Blake|first7 = Geoffrey A|year = 2014|doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29|bibcode = 2014ApJ...783L..29L|s2cid = 8463125}}</ref> HAT-P-11b,<ref name="NASA-20140924">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Chou |first2=Felicia |last3=Weaver |first3=Donna |last4=Villard |first45=Ray |last5=Johnson |first5=Michele |title=NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |date=24 September 2014 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114220647/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hanslmeier2010">{{cite book |author=Arnold Hanslmeier |title=Water in the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-9984-6 |pages=159– |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715031920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.<ref name="NASA-20131203">{{cite web |title=Hubble Traces Subtle Signals of Water on Hazy Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |date=3 December 2013 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206012837/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |archive-date=6 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Stellar atmospheres: water vapor no dey only for cool stars. Scientists don detect am too for giant hot stars like Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares and Arcturus.<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /><ref name="Lund Observatory">Andersson, Jonas (June 2012). [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 Water in stellar atmospheres "Is a novel picture required to explain the atmospheric behavior of water in red giant stars?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213133956/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 |date=13 February 2015 }} Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden</ref> Circumstellar disks: water vapor dey inside the disks around more than half of T Tauri stars, including AA Tauri,<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /> plus TW Hydrae,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html Herschel Finds Oceans of Water in Disk of Nearby Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219053556/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html |date=19 February 2015 }}. Nasa.gov (20 October 2011). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jpl.nasa.gov/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604082809/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2011-327|url-status=dead|title=JPL|archivedate=4 June 2012|website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)}}</ref> IRC +10216,<ref>Lloyd, Robin. ''"Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star"'', 11 July 2001, [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html Space.com]. Retrieved 15 December 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523025818/http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html |date=23 May 2009 }}</ref> and APM 08279+5255,<ref name="Clavin" /><ref name="water vapor cloud" /> VY Canis Majoris and S Persei.<ref name="Lund Observatory" /> nic2lqb83v8uqiea8ziyeapyi7ykym6 101967 101963 2026-06-11T23:17:45Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Correction of section 101967 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> ====As a scientific standard==== On 7 April 1795, dem define di gram for France say e go equal "di exact weight of one volume of pure water wey equal cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and for di temperature wey ice dey melt".<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey be one thousand times heavier, wey be di kilogram. So dem assign scientists make dem determine di exact mass of one liter of water. Even though di official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—di scientists decide say dem go redefine di standard and do dia measurements for di temperature where water get ein highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> Di Kelvin temperature scale of di SI system bin dey based on di triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey based on di Boltzmann constant instead. Di scale be absolute temperature scale wey get di same increment as di Celsius temperature scale, wey originally dem define according to di boiling point ({{convert|100|C}}) and melting point ({{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain di isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small quantity of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) too dey inside. Di percentage of these heavier isotopes small well-well, but e still dey affect water ein properties. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of dat, dem define standard water according to di Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] Di human body contain around 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get anywhere between 45% and 75% water for dia body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Di U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily intake of {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water for adult men and {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}} for women.<ref name=":2" /> Di exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and oda factors. Most of this water intake come from food and beverages, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Medical literature often support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for average adult man, excluding extra requirements caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress from activities like exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than dia body need during exercise, and this fit put dem for risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit even cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> Di popular claim say "person for drink eight glasses of water every day" no get strong scientific evidence behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say drinking extra water, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Adequate fluid intake too dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] Di original recommendation for water intake wey di Food and Nutrition Board of di U.S. National Research Council make for 1945 talk say: "Normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity already dey inside prepared foods."<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> Di latest dietary reference intake report from di U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on median total water intake from U.S. survey data (including food sources): {{convert|3.7|L}} total water for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} total water for women. Di report note say water from food contribute around 19% of total water intake in di survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. Di US Institute of Medicine recommend say, on average, men for consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women for increase dia intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, and breastfeeding women for get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E still note say normally around 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while di rest come from drinking water and beverages (including caffeinated drinks).<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> Water dey leave di body through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase, and daily fluid needs fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey no get plenty impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds like pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria such as ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some solutes dey acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide necessary electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> Di biggest freshwater resource for di world wey suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====As a scientific standard==== For 7 April 1795, France define gram as “the exact weight of pure water wey get volume equal to cube wey each side be one-hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of melting ice.”<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey heavy pass am one thousand times, wey be the kilogram. Because of that, dem assign work make dem determine exactly the mass of one liter of water. Even though the official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—the scientists decide say dem go redefine the standard and do their measurements for the temperature wey water get its highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> The Kelvin temperature scale for the SI system originally base on the triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey base on the Boltzmann constant instead. The scale be absolute temperature scale wey get the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, wey dem first define according to the boiling point (set to {{convert|100|C}}) and melting point (set to {{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small amount of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) dey inside too. The percentage of these heavier isotopes be very small, but e still dey affect the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of that, standard water dey defined according to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] The human body get about 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get between 45% and 75%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend say adult men for take about {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water every day, while women for take about {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2" /> The exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this water people get from food and drinks, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Some medical publications support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for an average man, apart from extra needs caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress such as exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than their body need during exercise, and this fit put dem at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> The common claim say “person for drink eight glasses of water every day” no get strong scientific proof behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say extra water intake, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Taking enough fluids also dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] One of the first recommendations about water intake, wey the Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. National Research Council publish for 1945, talk say: “A normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity dey already inside prepared foods.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> The latest dietary reference intake report from the U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on survey data from the United States (including water from food), total water intake of {{convert|3.7|L}} for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} for women. The report also note say water from food contribute about 19% of total water intake in the survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Pregnant women and breastfeeding women especially need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. The U.S. Institute of Medicine recommend say men on average make dem consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women should increase their intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, while breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E also note say normally, about 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while the remaining part come from drinking water and other beverages, including caffeinated drinks.<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> The body dey remove water through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase and daily fluid requirements fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey get very few impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds such as pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria like ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some dissolved substances are acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide important electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> The biggest freshwater resource in the world suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> ====Washing==== {{excerpt|washing}} ====Transportation==== {{excerpt|maritime transport|only=paragraphs}} ====Chemical uses==== People dey use water plenty for chemical reactions as solvent or reactant, and less often as solute or catalyst. For inorganic reactions, water be common solvent wey fit dissolve many ionic compounds plus other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds wey closely resemble water. For organic reactions, people no usually use water as reaction solvent because e no dey dissolve many reactants well and because e be amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Even so, these properties sometimes dey useful. Scientists also observe say water fit speed up Diels-Alder reactions. Supercritical water too recently become important topic for research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water fit burn organic pollutants efficiently. ====Heat exchange==== Water and steam be common fluids for heat exchange because dem easy to get and because water get high heat capacity, whether for cooling or heating. Cool water fit even come naturally from lakes or the sea. Water dey especially effective for transporting heat through vaporization and condensation because e get large latent heat of vaporization. One disadvantage be say metals wey industries commonly use, such as steel and copper, dey oxidize faster when untreated water and steam dey involved. For almost all thermal power stations, dem dey use water as the working fluid (inside a closed-loop system between boiler, steam turbine, and condenser) and also as coolant (to transfer waste heat into a water body or remove am through evaporation in a cooling tower). For the United States, cooling power plants be the biggest use of water.<ref name="Water Use in the United States">[http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html "Water Use in the United States"], ''National Atlas''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814045418/http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html |date=14 August 2009 }}</ref> For the nuclear power industry, water fit also serve as neutron moderator. For most nuclear reactors, water be both coolant and moderator. This provide some passive safety benefit because if water leave the reactor, e also slow down the nuclear reaction. However, other methods dey preferred for stopping reactions completely, and dem prefer make the nuclear core stay covered with water so cooling go continue properly. ====Fire considerations==== [[File:MH-60S Helicopter dumps water onto Fire.jpg|right|thumb|Water is used for fighting wildfires.]] Water get high heat of vaporization and e be relatively inert, so e be good fire-extinguishing fluid. As water evaporate, e carry heat away from the fire. But e dey dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents because many organic materials float on water, and the water fit spread the burning liquid. When people dey use water for fire fighting, dem also need consider the danger of steam explosions, wey fit happen when water touch very hot fires in enclosed places. Another danger be hydrogen explosions, wey fit happen when substances wey react with water, such as some metals or very hot carbon materials like coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, break down water and produce water gas. The power of such explosions show clearly during the Chernobyl disaster, although for that case the water no come from fire-fighting but from the reactor’s own cooling system. A steam explosion happen when the reactor core overheat seriously and make water turn suddenly into steam. A hydrogen explosion may also have happened because of the reaction between steam and hot zirconium. Some metallic oxides, especially those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, release so much heat when dem react with water that fire hazards fit develop. The alkaline earth oxide quicklime, also known as calcium oxide, be one mass-produced substance wey people often transport inside paper bags. If water soak the bags, dem fit catch fire because the contents react with water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet: Quicklime |url=https://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |publisher=Lhoist North America |date=6 August 2012 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705030051/http://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ====Recreation==== {{Main|Water sport (recreation)}} [[File:Johny Cay.jpg|thumb|right|San Andrés island, Colombia]] Humans dey use water for plenty recreational activities, plus exercise and sports too. Some of dem be swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. Plus, some sports like ice hockey and ice skating dey happen on ice. Lakesides, beaches and water parks be popular places wey people dey go relax and enjoy themselves. Plenty people dey find the sound and look of flowing water very calming, and fountains plus other flowing-water structures dey serve as popular decorations. Some people too dey keep fish and other plants and animals inside aquariums or ponds for display, enjoyment and companionship. Humans also dey use water for snow sports such as skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, wey all require say the water dey low temperature either as ice or as crystallized snow. ====Water industry==== The water industry dey provide drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) for households and industries. Water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators too dey under development. Drinking water often dey come from springs, artificial borings (wells) for ground, or dem dey pump am from lakes and rivers. Building more wells for suitable places fit help increase water supply, as long as the aquifers fit provide enough water flow. Other water sources include rainwater collection. Water fit need purification before humans go fit drink am. This fit involve removing undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods include filtering with sand, wey mainly removes undissolved materials, while chlorination and boiling dey kill harmful microbes. Distillation dey perform all three functions. More advanced techniques such as reverse osmosis dey exist. Desalination of abundant seawater be a more expensive solution wey coastal arid climates dey use. Distribution of drinking water dey happen through municipal water systems, tanker deliveries, or as bottled water. Governments for many countries get programs wey dey distribute water to needy people free of charge. Another option be to reduce usage by reserving drinking (potable) water mainly for human consumption. For some cities like Hong Kong, dem dey use seawater extensively for flushing toilets across the whole city to conserve freshwater resources. Polluting water fit be the biggest misuse of water. As long as a pollutant limits other ways people fit use the water, e become waste of the resource, no matter the benefit to the polluter. Like other forms of pollution, this one no dey enter standard market cost accounting because dem dey treat am as externalities wey the market no fit properly account for. So other people dey pay the cost of water pollution, while profits from private companies no dey redistribute to the local people wey suffer from the pollution. Pharmaceuticals wey humans consume often end up inside waterways and fit negatively affect aquatic life if dem bioaccumulate and if dem no be biodegradable. Municipal and industrial wastewater usually dey receive treatment for wastewater treatment plants. Mitigation of polluted surface runoff dey happen through different prevention and treatment techniques. {{gallery |align=center |File:Water carrier in India.jpg|A water-carrier for India, 1882. For many places wey running water no dey available, people have to transport water by themselves. |File:TapWater-china.JPG|A manual water pump for China |File:Usine Bret MG 1648.jpg|Water purification facility |File:Reverse osmosis desalination plant.JPG|Reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant for Barcelona, Spain }} ====Industrial applications==== Plenty industrial processes depend on chemical reactions wey happen inside water, suspension of solids inside water slurries, or use of water to dissolve and extract substances, or to wash products and equipment. Processes such as mining, chemical pulping, pulp bleaching, paper manufacturing, textile production, dyeing, printing and cooling of power plants dey use large amounts of water. These activities require dedicated water sources and often cause serious water pollution. Water too dey play important role for power generation. Hydroelectricity be electricity wey come from hydropower. Hydroelectric power dey come from water wey dey drive a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity be low-cost, non-polluting and renewable energy source. The movement of water dey provide the energy. Usually, dem build dam for river, creating artificial lake behind am. Water wey flows out from the lake dey pass through turbines wey turn generators. {{wide image|200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-4.med.jpg|800px|Three Gorges Dam be the largest hydro-electric power station for the world.}} Dem dey use pressurized water for water blasting and water jet cutters. High-pressure water guns dey provide very precise cutting. E dey work very well, e relatively safe, and e no dey harm the environment. Dem also dey use am to cool machinery and prevent overheating, or stop saw blades from overheating. Water too dey play role inside many industrial processes and machines, such as steam turbines and heat exchangers, apart from its use as chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial activities be water pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry needs pure water for many applications, and dey use different purification techniques both for water supply and discharge. The digital sector, especially Artificial intelligence, dey use huge amounts of water. Because of that, AI expansion fit threaten global and national water security.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kenny |first1=Rich |last2=Lunj |first2=Avinash |last3=Kis |first3=Alexandra |title=AI’s thirst for water |url=https://sustainableict.blog.gov.uk/2025/09/17/ais-thirst-for-water/ |website=GOV UK |publisher=the Government Digital Sustainability Alliance (GDSA) |access-date=5 February 2026}}</ref> ====Food processing==== [[File:Cuisson des pates.jpg|thumb|Water fit be used to cook foods such as noodles.]] [[File:Sterilewater.jpg|thumb|upright|Sterile water for injection]] Boiling, steaming and simmering be popular cooking methods wey often require food to stay inside water or steam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|title=A Course in Household Arts: Part I|last=Duff|first=Loretto Basil|date=1916|publisher=Whitcomb & Barrows|access-date=3 December 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164100/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem also dey use water for dishwashing. Water too dey play many important roles inside food science. Solutes such as salts and sugars wey dey inside water fit affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water dey change because of solutes and air pressure, and air pressure itself dey affected by altitude. Water dey boil at lower temperatures for places wey air pressure low because of higher elevation. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water dey increase water boiling point by {{convert|0.51|C-change|3}}, while one mole of salt per kilogram dey increase am by {{convert|1.02|C-change|3}}. In the same way, increasing dissolved particles dey lower the freezing point of water.<ref name="vaclacik">{{cite book |title=Essentials of Food Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |year=2007 |last1=Vaclavik |first1=Vickie A. |last2=Christian |first2=Elizabeth W. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-69939-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164352/https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |url-status=live }}</ref> Solutes inside water too dey affect water activity, and that one dey influence plenty chemical reactions plus microbial growth inside food.<ref name="deman">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |title=Principles of Food Chemistry |year=1999 |last=DeMan |first=John M. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-8342-1234-3 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414185952/https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water activity fit be described as the ratio between vapor pressure of water inside a solution and vapor pressure of pure water.<ref name="vaclacik" /> Solutes inside water dey lower water activity, and this be important because most bacteria growth stops when water activity become very low.<ref name="deman" /> Microbial growth no only affect food safety, but e also affects preservation and shelf life of food. Water hardness too be important factor for food processing, and dem fit alter or treat am by using chemical ion exchange systems. E fit greatly affect product quality and sanitation. Water hardness dey classified according to the concentration of calcium carbonate inside the water. Water be classified as soft if e contains less than 100 mg/L (UK)<ref name="DEFRA">{{cite web |url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |title=Map showing the rate of hardness in mg/L as Calcium carbonate in England and Wales |publisher=DEFRA Drinking Water Inspectorate |date=2009 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529054911/http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> or less than 60 mg/L (US).<ref name="USGS">{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |publisher=US Geological Service |title=Water hardness |date=8 April 2014 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518204909/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to report wey Water Footprint organization publish for 2010, one kilogram of beef requires {{convert|15|e3L|e3impgal+e3usgal}} of water. However, the authors make am clear say this be global average and local conditions fit affect the amount of water wey beef production go use.<ref>{{cite report |title=The green, blue and grey water footprint of farm animals and animal products, Value of Water |series=Research Report Series |volume=1|issue=48 |url=http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |publisher=UNESCO – IHE Institute for Water Education |access-date=30 January 2014 |first1=M. M. |last1=Mekonnen |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |date=December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527104135/http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ====Medical use==== Water for injection dey on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |title=WHO Model List of EssentialMedicines |date=October 2013 |website=World Health Organization |access-date=22 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423005004/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |archive-date=23 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Distribution in nature== ===In the universe=== [[File:Band 5 ALMA receiver.jpg|thumb|Band 5 ALMA receiver be instrument wey dem design specially to detect water for the universe.<ref>{{cite web |title=ALMA Greatly Improves Capacity to Search for Water in Universe |url=http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |access-date=20 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723070436/http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |archive-date=23 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] A large part of the water for the universe dey form as byproduct of star formation. When stars dey form, strong outward winds of gas and dust dey accompany the process. When this material eventually hits the surrounding gas, the shock waves wey form dey compress and heat the gas. The water wey scientists observe then dey form quickly inside this warm and dense gas.<ref>Melnick, Gary, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and Neufeld, David, Johns Hopkins University quoted in: {{cite web |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |title=Discover of Water Vapor Near Orion Nebula Suggests Possible Origin of H20 in Solar System (sic) |date=23 April 1998 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000116054013/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |archive-date=16 January 2000 }} {{cite news |url=http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |title=Space Cloud Holds Enough Water to Fill Earth's Oceans 1 Million Times |date=9 April 1998 |publisher=Headlines@Hopkins, JHU |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109171410/http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |archive-date=9 November 2007 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |title=Water, Water Everywhere: Radio telescope finds water is common in universe |date=25 February 1999 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519141432/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |archive-date=19 May 2011 |url-status=live }} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160715053715/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html archive link])</ref> On 22 July 2011, one report describe discovery of huge water-vapor cloud wey contain “140 trillion times more water than all Earth oceans combined” around one quasar located 12 billion light years away from Earth. According to the researchers, the discovery show say water don dey common for the universe for almost all of its existence.<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=NASA |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Space.com |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scientists don detect water inside interstellar clouds within the Milky Way.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |title=Faint Echoes, Distant Stars: The Science and Politics of Finding Life Beyond Earth |last=Bova |first=Ben |year=2009 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-06-185448-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164517/https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water likely dey plenty for other galaxies too because hydrogen and oxygen, wey be the components of water, be among the most abundant elements for the universe. Based on models of the formation and evolution of the Solar System and other star systems, most other planetary systems likely get similar ingredients. writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====Water vapor==== Water dey exist as vapor for: Atmosphere of the Sun: e dey inside for small trace amounts.<ref name=Solanki1994>{{cite journal |last1=Solanki |first1=S.K. |last2=Livingston |first2=W. |last3=Ayres |first3=T. |year=1994 |title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pmid=17748350 |volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66 |bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S |doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64 |s2cid=27696504 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030222/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, plus plenty water for Mercury ein exosphere.<ref name="planetary society">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |title=MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere |access-date=5 July 2008 |publisher=Planetary Society |date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034624/http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%.<ref name=Bertaux2007>{{cite journal |last=Bertaux |first=Jean-Loup |title=A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=450 |pages=646–649 |doi=10.1038/nature05974 |bibcode=2007Natur.450..646B |pmid=18046397 |issue=7170 |author2=Vandaele, Ann-Carine |last3=Korablev |first3=Oleg |last4=Villard |first4=E. |last5=Fedorova |first5=A. |last6=Fussen |first6=D. |last7=Quémerais |first7=E. |last8=Belyaev |first8=D. |last9=Mahieux |first9=A. |hdl=2268/29200 |s2cid=4421875 |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122145/https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Earth's atmosphere: about 0.40% for the whole atmosphere, but normally 1–4% near the surface. Atmosphere of the Moon: e dey inside for small trace amounts.<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |last1=Sridharan |first1=R. |first2=S.M. |last2=Ahmed |first3=Tirtha Pratim |last3=Dasa |first4=P. |last4=Sreelathaa |first5=P. |last5=Pradeepkumara |first6=Neha |last6=Naika |first7=Gogulapati |last7=Supriya |year=2010 |page=947 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%.<ref name="Rapp2012">{{cite book |author=Rapp, Donald |title=Use of Extraterrestrial Resources for Human Space Missions to Moon or Mars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-32762-9 |page=78 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715154349/https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Atmosphere of Ceres.<ref name="Kuppers2014">{{cite journal |last1=Küppers |first1=M. |last2=O'Rourke |first2=L. |last3=Bockelée-Morvan |first3=D.|author3-link=Dominique Bockelée-Morvan |last4=Zakharov |first4=V. |last5=Lee |first5=S. |last6=Von Allmen |first6=P. |last7=Carry |first7=B. |last8=Teyssier |first8=D. |last9=Marston |first9=A. |last10=Müller |first10=T. |last11=Crovisier |first11=J. |last12=Barucci |first12=M.A. |last13=Moreno |first13=R. |title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres |journal=Nature |volume=505 |issue=7484 |date=23 January 2014 |pages=525–527|doi=10.1038/nature12918 |pmid=24451541 |bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|s2cid=4448395 }}</ref> Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1951-5 |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Wong |first2=Ah-San |year=2005 |title=Coupled Clouds and Chemistry of the Giant Planets – A Case for Multiprobes |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=116 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–136 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |bibcode=2005SSRv..116..121A |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722074717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live |hdl=2027.42/43766 |s2cid=31037195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Water for Jupiter mostly dey as ice, and e dey for ein moon Europa too.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053143/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Atmosphere of Saturn: water mostly dey as ice. Enceladus get about 91% water vapor plume,<ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121254 |title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume |year=2006 |author=Hansen |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1422–1425 |pmid=16527971 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H |author2=C.J.|last3=Stewart |first3=AI |last4=Colwell |first4=J |last5=Hendrix |first5=A |last6=Pryor |first6=W |last7=Shemansky |first7=D |last8=West |first8=R|s2cid=2954801 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132849/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> and Dione fit get underground ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez-Maes |first=Sophia |date=January 11, 2017 |title=Solid Evidence for Liquid Water on Dione |url=https://www.yalescientific.org/2017/01/solid-evidence-for-liquid-water-on-dione/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Yale Scientific Magazine}}</ref> Atmosphere of Uranus: water vapor dey inside for very small amounts below 50 bar. Atmosphere of Neptune: water dey for the deeper layers.<ref name=hubbard>{{cite journal |last=Hubbard |first=W.B. |title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry |journal=Science |year=1997 |volume=275 |issue=5304 |pages=1279–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279 |pmid=9064785|s2cid=36248590 }}</ref> Extrasolar planet atmospheres: water vapor don dey detected for planets like HD 189733 b,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html Water Found on Distant Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716081124/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html |date=16 July 2007 }} 12 July 2007 By Laura Blue, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> HD 209458 b,<ref name="Space.com water">[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230065702/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html |date=30 December 2010 }} – Space.com</ref> Tau Boötis b,<ref>{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1402.0846|last1 = Lockwood|first1 = Alexandra C|title = Near-IR Direct Detection of Water Vapor in Tau Boo B|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 783|issue = 2|pages = L29|last2 = Johnson|first2 = John A|last3 = Bender|first3 = Chad F|last4 = Carr|first4 = John S|last5 = Barman|first5 = Travis|last6 = Richert|first6 = Alexander J.W.|last7 = Blake|first7 = Geoffrey A|year = 2014|doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29|bibcode = 2014ApJ...783L..29L|s2cid = 8463125}}</ref> HAT-P-11b,<ref name="NASA-20140924">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Chou |first2=Felicia |last3=Weaver |first3=Donna |last4=Villard |first45=Ray |last5=Johnson |first5=Michele |title=NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |date=24 September 2014 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114220647/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hanslmeier2010">{{cite book |author=Arnold Hanslmeier |title=Water in the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-9984-6 |pages=159– |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715031920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.<ref name="NASA-20131203">{{cite web |title=Hubble Traces Subtle Signals of Water on Hazy Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |date=3 December 2013 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206012837/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |archive-date=6 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Stellar atmospheres: water vapor no dey only for cool stars. Scientists don detect am too for giant hot stars like Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares and Arcturus.<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /><ref name="Lund Observatory">Andersson, Jonas (June 2012). [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 Water in stellar atmospheres "Is a novel picture required to explain the atmospheric behavior of water in red giant stars?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213133956/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 |date=13 February 2015 }} Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden</ref> Circumstellar disks: water vapor dey inside the disks around more than half of T Tauri stars, including AA Tauri,<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /> plus TW Hydrae,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html Herschel Finds Oceans of Water in Disk of Nearby Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219053556/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html |date=19 February 2015 }}. Nasa.gov (20 October 2011). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jpl.nasa.gov/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604082809/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2011-327|url-status=dead|title=JPL|archivedate=4 June 2012|website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)}}</ref> IRC +10216,<ref>Lloyd, Robin. ''"Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star"'', 11 July 2001, [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html Space.com]. Retrieved 15 December 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523025818/http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html |date=23 May 2009 }}</ref> and APM 08279+5255,<ref name="Clavin" /><ref name="water vapor cloud" /> VY Canis Majoris and S Persei.<ref name="Lund Observatory" /> ovnx3zpkqubqjzdpb778qq5fgm7e2h9 101975 101967 2026-06-11T23:21:03Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 101975 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen}} {{Redirect|H2O||H2O (disambiguation)|and|Water (disambiguation)}} '''Water''' na inorganic compound wey get the chemical formula {{chem2|H2O}}. E be transparent, e no get taste, e no get smell,{{efn|see the water#Taste and odor section}} and e almost no get color chemical substance. E be the main part of Earth ein streams, lakes, and oceans plus the fluids of all living organisms wey we know, where e dey act as solvent. Water be polar molecule, so e dey form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, and dis one contribute plenty to ein physical and chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Water dey very important for all forms of life wey we know, even though e no dey provide food energy and e no be organic micronutrient. Because water dey inside all organisms, e chemical stable, e dey plenty for the whole world, and e strong polarity compared to ein small molecular size, people dey call am the "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Because Earth ein surface temperature and pressure dey close to water ein triple point, water fit exist for Earth as solid, liquid, and gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form precipitation like rain and aerosols like fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, wey be water ein solid state. When crystalline ice break into tiny pieces, e fit fall as snow. The gaseous state of water na steam or water vapor. Water cover about 71% of Earth ein surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey underground as groundwater (1.7%), for glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and for air as vapor, clouds (wey consist of ice and liquid water suspended for air), and precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} UNEP.</ref> Water dey move continuously through the water cycle by evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, mostly ending up inside the sea. Water dey play important role for the world economy. About 70% of the fresh water wey humans use dey go agriculture side.<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing for salt water and fresh water bodies be major food source for many parts of the world and e still dey continue today, providing 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plenty long-distance trade of goods like oil, natural gas, and manufactured products dey move by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Industries and homes dey use large amounts of water, ice, and steam for cooling and heating. Water be excellent solvent for many mineral and organic substances, so people dey use am plenty for industrial processes, cooking, and washing. Water, ice, and snow too be important for many sports and entertainment activities such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Etymology== The word ''water'' come from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source too of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} ({{transliteration|got|wato}})), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ({{gloss|water}}; {{gloss|wet}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> E still get relation through the Indo-European root with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ({{transliteration|el|ýdor}}; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|hýdōr}}), where English {{gloss|hydro-}} come from), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} ({{transliteration|ru|vodá}}), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, and Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==History== {{main|Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|Properties of water#History}} ===On Earth=== {{excerpt|Origin of water on Earth|section =History of water on Earth}} ==Properties== {{Main|Properties of water}} {{see also||Water (data page)|Water model}} [[File:Water molecule (1).svg|thumb|right|One water molecule get two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.]] Water ({{chem2|H2O|auto=1}}) be polar inorganic compound. For room temperature, e be tasteless and odorless liquid wey almost no get color, though e get small blue tint. Water be the simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, and e be by far the chemical compound wey scientists don study pass. Sometimes dem dey call am the "universal solvent" because e fit dissolve more substances than any other liquid,<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=620}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |website=USGS |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709141251/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html |archive-date=9 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> though e no dey dissolve nonpolar substances well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solvent properties of water |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent |website=Khan Academy}}</ref> Dis one make water become the "solvent of life":<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=48 }}</ref> in nature, water almost always get different dissolved substances inside, and special processes dey needed before person fit get chemically pure water. Water be the only common substance wey fit exist as solid, liquid, and gas under normal Earth conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Campbell Biology |last=Reece |first=Jane B. |year=2013 |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |isbn=978-0-321-77565-8 |edition=10th |page=44 }}</ref> ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names wey dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down; e be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, though e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances with this property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1&nbsp;atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e reach density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create huge pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e cool. These unusual thermal properties get important effects on life for Earth. For lake or ocean, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di oceans of di world. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, leading to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit stay liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1&nbsp;°C for every 274&nbsp;meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time for increase by one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ===States=== [[File: States of Matter.svg|thumb|Di three common states of matter]] Alongside ''oxidane'', ''water'' be one of di two official names dem dey use for di chemical compound {{chem|H|2|O}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |title=Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations |last1=Leigh |first1=G. J. |last2 = Favre| first2 = H. A|last3 = Metanomski|first3 = W. V.|date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science|location=Oxford|oclc=37341352|isbn=978-0-86542-685-6|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171925/http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/principles/principles_of_nomenclature.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> e still be di liquid phase of {{chem|H|2|O}}.<ref name=pubchem>{{cite web |last1=PubChem |title=Water |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Water |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194841/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/water |url-status=live }}</ref> Di oda two common states of water be di solid phase wey be ice, plus di gaseous phase wey be water vapor or steam. If heat increase or reduce, e fit cause phase transitions: freezing (water turn ice), melting (ice turn water), vaporization (water turn vapor), condensation (vapor turn water), sublimation (ice turn vapor) and deposition (vapor turn ice).<ref name=Belnay>{{cite web |last1=Belnay |first1=Louise |title=The water cycle |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |website=Critical thinking activities |publisher=Earth System Research Laboratory |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920152817/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/Teacher_CTA_the_water_cycle.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Density ==== {{See also|Frost weathering}} Water be one of di few common natural substances wey, for some temperature ranges, dey become less dense as e dey cool down. E be di only known natural substance wey dey do am while e still dey liquid. Plus, e get unusual behavior because e become much less dense when e freeze, although e no be di only substance wey dey behave like dat.{{efn|Other substances wey get dis property include bismuth, silicon, germanium and gallium.<ref name=Oliveira/>}} [[File:Water density volume mass metric.png|thumb|Different ways to show water density using five metric units of length, volume and mass.]] For pressure of 1 atm, water reach ein maximum density of {{convert|999.972|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}} at {{convert|3.98|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Density? |url=https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |website=Mettler Toledo |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111064630/https://www.mt.com/sg/en/home/applications/Application_Browse_Laboratory_Analytics/Density/density-measurement.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NatureWaterStructure">{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2230441 |title= Water – an enduring mystery |access-date=15 November 2016 |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7185 |pages=291–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117211552/http://www.academia.edu/2230441/Water_Water_an_enduring_mystery |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live |bibcode=2008Natur.452..291B |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/452291a |pmid=18354466 |s2cid=4365814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Below dat temperature, but above di freezing point of {{convert|0|°C}}, water dey expand (meaning say e dey become less dense) till e reach di freezing point, where ein liquid density be {{convert|999.8|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=6|abbr=on}}. As water dey cool reach {{convert|3.98|°C}}, ein volume dey reduce.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water density |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1009-water-density |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Science Learning Hub |language=en}}</ref> As water freeze turn ice, e expand by about 9%, and e get density of {{convert|917|kg/m3|lb/cuft|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotz |first1=J. C. |last2=Treichel |first2=P. |last3=Weaver |first3=G. C. |year=2005 |title=Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0-534-39597-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=Ariel |display-authors=etal |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |year=2011 |doi=10.1142/8068 |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=Roberta |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Dis expansion fit create strong pressure wey fit burst pipes and crack rocks.<ref name="MM">{{cite journal |last1=Matsuoka |first1=N. |last2=Murton |first2=J. |title=Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions |journal=Permafrost and Periglacial Processes |volume=19 |issue= 2|pages=195–210 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/ppp.620 |bibcode=2008PPPr...19..195M |s2cid=131395533 }}</ref> As solid, ice dey show di normal behavior where e dey contract and become more dense as e dey cool. Dis unusual thermal property get very important effects on life for Earth. For lakes and oceans, water wey get {{cvt|4|C|F}} dey sink go bottom, while ice dey form for top and float on di liquid water. Dis ice dey act like insulation for di water under, so e no dey allow am freeze completely. Without dis protection, most aquatic organisms wey dey live inside lakes for die during winter season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wiltse |first1=Brendan |title=A Look Under The Ice: Winter Lake Ecology |url=https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |website=Ausable River Association |access-date=23 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619081813/https://www.ausableriver.org/blog/look-under-ice-winter-lake-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Plus, dis unusual behavior be important part of di thermohaline circulation wey dey distribute heat around di world's oceans. ==== Magnetism ==== Water be diamagnetic material.<ref name="Chen-2010">{{Cite web|last=Chen|first=Zijun|date=21 April 2010|title=Measurement of Diamagnetism in Water|url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|language=en-US|journal=|hdl=11299/90865 |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108015508/https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/90865|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though di interaction weak, if dem use superconducting magnets, e fit show noticeable interaction.<ref name="Chen-2010" /> ==== Phase transitions ==== For pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice dey melt or water dey freeze at {{cvt|0|C|}}, and water dey boil or vapor dey condense at {{cvt|100|C|F}}. But even below di boiling point, water fit still turn vapor from ein surface through evaporation (while vaporization through di whole liquid be boiling). Sublimation and deposition too dey happen for surfaces.<ref name=Belnay/> For example, frost dey form on cold surfaces while snowflakes dey form through deposition on aerosol particles or ice nuclei.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wells |first1=Sarah |title=The Beauty and Science of Snowflakes |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |access-date=25 March 2020 |language=en |date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185513/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/beauty-and-science-snowflakes |url-status=live }}</ref> For freeze-drying process, dem first freeze food and then keep am under low pressure so di ice for di surface go sublimate.<ref name=FreezeDrying>{{Cite book|title=Food processing technology: principles and practice|last=Fellows|first=Peter|date=2017|publisher=Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-100523-1|edition=4th|location=Kent|pages=929–940|chapter=Freeze drying and freeze concentration|oclc=960758611}}</ref> Di melting and boiling points depend on pressure. One good approximation for how melting temperature dey change with pressure be di Clausius–Clapeyron relation: <math display="block"> \frac{d T}{d P} = \frac{T \left(v_\text{L}-v_\text{S}\right) }{L_\text{f}} </math> where <math>v_\text{L}</math> and <math>v_\text{S}</math> be di molar volumes of di liquid and solid phases, and <math>L_\text{f}</math> be di molar latent heat of melting. For most substances, volume dey increase when dem melt, so melting temperature too dey increase with pressure. But because ice less dense than water, di melting temperature dey reduce as pressure increase.<ref name=Oliveira>{{cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Mário J. de |title=Equilibrium Thermodynamics |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53207-2 |pages=120–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8GRDgAAQBAJ&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122 |access-date=26 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308003011/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equilibrium_Thermodynamics/F8GRDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=denser+liquid+than+solid+phase+water+silicon+bismuth&pg=PA122&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> For glaciers, pressure melting fit happen under very thick ice, wey fit lead to subglacial lakes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegert |first1=Martin J. |last2=Ellis-Evans |first2=J. Cynan |last3=Tranter |first3=Martyn |last4=Mayer |first4=Christoph |last5=Petit |first5=Jean-Robert |last6=Salamatin |first6=Andrey |last7=Priscu |first7=John C. |title=Physical, chemical and biological processes in Lake Vostok and other Antarctic subglacial lakes |journal=Nature |date=December 2001 |volume=414 |issue=6864 |pages=603–609 |doi=10.1038/414603a|pmid=11740551 |bibcode=2001Natur.414..603S |s2cid=4423510 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Davies |first1=Bethan |title=Antarctic subglacial lakes |url=http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |website=AntarcticGlaciers |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003171536/http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/glacial-lakes/subglacial-lakes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Di Clausius-Clapeyron relation still dey apply to boiling point, but because di vapor phase get much lower density than di liquid phase, di boiling point dey increase as pressure increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masterton |first1=William L. |last2=Hurley |first2=Cecile N. |title=Chemistry: principles and reactions |date=2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-12671-3 |page=230 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teubNK-b2bsC&q=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |access-date=3 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308080844/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chemistry_Principles_and_Reactions/teubNK-b2bsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=clapeyron%20equation%20boiling |url-status=live }}</ref> Water fit remain liquid at very high temperatures for deep ocean or underground. For example, temperature fit pass {{convert|205|C}} inside Old Faithful geyser for Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peaco |first1=Jim |title=Yellowstone Lesson Plan: How Yellowstone Geysers Erupt |location=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |access-date=5 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302093350/https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/education/classrooms/how-yellowstone-geysers-erupt.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> For hydrothermal vents, temperature fit pass {{convert|400|C}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brahic |first1=Catherine |title=Found: The hottest water on Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=New Scientist |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509103747/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For sea level, water boiling point be {{convert|100|C}}. As atmospheric pressure dey reduce with altitude, boiling point too dey reduce by 1 °C for every 274 meters. Cooking for high-altitude places dey take longer than cooking for sea level. For example, at {{convert|1524|m}}, cooking time go increase by about one-quarter before you fit get di desired result.<ref>{{cite web |last1=USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service |title=High Altitude Cooking and Food Safety |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120010850/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/High_Altitude_Cooking_and_Food_Safety.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On di other hand, pressure cooker fit reduce cooking time by increasing di boiling temperature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pressure Cooking – Food Science |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |website=Exploratorium |language=en |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619044746/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/pressure-cooking |url-status=live }}</ref> Inside vacuum, water go boil at room temperature.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=Yes, You Can Boil Water at Room Temperature. Here's How |url=https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |access-date=5 April 2020 |magazine=Wired |date=12 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044101/https://www.wired.com/story/yes-you-can-boil-water-at-room-temperature-heres-how/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Taste and odor=== Pure water normally no get taste or smell, but humans get special sensors wey fit detect water for dem mouth,<ref name="pmid28553944">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zocchi D, Wennemuth G, Oka Y | title = The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–933 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28553944 | doi = 10.1038/nn.4575 | s2cid = 13263401 | url = https://authors.library.caltech.edu/77104/6/nn.4575-S2.pdf | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 5 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240305154837/https://s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/caltechauthors/99/15/d0ca-f08f-4315-b32e-c758f8dd1cc8/data?response-content-type=application/octet-stream&response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3Dnn.4575-S2.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIARCVIVNNAKP37N3MU/20240305/us-west-2/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20240305T154835Z&X-Amz-Expires=60&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=c12110c390e86eaaada9c08cfa75fbc87beb2c703250bafb9358fda4dfc2acf4 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=emo>Edmund T. Rolls (2005). ''Emotion Explained''. Oxford University Press, Medical. {{ISBN|978-0198570035}}.</ref> and frogs too fit smell am.<ref name=frog>R. Llinas, W. Precht (2012), ''Frog Neurobiology: A Handbook''. Springer Science & Business Media. {{ISBN|978-3642663161}}</ref> However, water wey dey come from ordinary sources (including mineral water) usually get plenty dissolved substances inside wey fit give am different tastes and smells. Humans and other animals don develop senses wey help dem judge whether water fit be safe for drinking, so dem fit avoid water wey too salty or spoil.<ref name=candau>{{cite journal |last1=Candau |first1=Joël |year=2004 |title=The Olfactory Experience: constants and cultural variables |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |journal=Water Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002152229/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00130924 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |url-status=live |doi=10.2166/wst.2004.0522 |pmid=15237601 |bibcode=2004WSTec..49...11C }}</ref> ===Color and appearance=== {{Main|Color of water}} {{See also|Electromagnetic absorption by water}} Pure water dey look blue because e dey absorb light for di region around 600–800&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Braun |first=Charles L. |author2=Sergei N. Smirnov |title=Why is water blue? |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=8 |page=612 |year=1993 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |doi=10.1021/ed070p612 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..612B |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060654/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> You fit easily see dis color if you put tap water inside clear glass against pure white background under daylight. Di main absorption bands wey dey cause di color be overtone bands of di O–H stretching molecular vibrations. Di color intensity dey increase as di depth of di water increase, according to Beer's law. Dis same thing happen for swimming pools when sunlight reflect from di pool ein white tiles. For nature, di color fit change from blue to green because of suspended particles or algae wey dey inside di water. For industry, dem dey use near-infrared spectroscopy with aqueous solutions because di stronger lower overtones of water mean say dem fit use glass cuvettes wey get short path lengths. To observe di fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or aqueous solution around 3,500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} (2.85&nbsp;μm)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nakamoto |first1=Kazuo |title=Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds, Part A: Theory and Applications in Inorganic Chemistry |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0-471-16394-5 |page=170 |edition=5th}}</ref> path length of about 25&nbsp;μm be needed. Plus, di cuvette must be transparent around 3500&nbsp;cm{{sup|−1}} and e no for dissolve inside water; calcium fluoride be one material wey people commonly dey use for cuvette windows with aqueous solutions. Di Raman-active fundamental vibrations fit be observed with, for example, a 1&nbsp;cm sample cell. Aquatic plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms fit live inside water up to hundreds of meters deep because sunlight fit still reach dem. Practically no sunlight dey reach parts of di oceans wey pass {{convert|1000|m}} deep. Di refractive index of liquid water (1.333 at {{convert|20|C}}) dey much higher than dat of air (1.0), and e dey similar to alkanes and ethanol, but lower than glycerol (1.473), benzene (1.501), carbon disulfide (1.627), and common types of glass (1.4 to 1.6). Di refractive index of ice (1.31) dey lower than dat of liquid water. === Molecular polarity === [[File:Tetrahedral Structure of Water.png|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Tetrahedral structure of water]] For water molecule, di hydrogen atoms form angle of 104.5° with di oxygen atom. Di hydrogen atoms dey close to two corners of tetrahedron wey center around di oxygen atom. For di other two corners, lone pairs of valence electrons dey there, but dem no take part for di bonding. For perfect tetrahedron, di atoms for form angle of 109.5°, but di repulsion between di lone pairs dey stronger than di repulsion between di hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=168}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Franks|2007|p=10}}</ref> Di O–H bond length be about 0.096&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical Chemistry of Water |url=https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020055601/https://msu.edu/course/css/850/snapshot.afs/teppen/physical_chemistry_of_water.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other substances too get tetrahedral molecular structure, like methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem|H|2|S}}). However, oxygen get stronger electronegativity than most other elements, so di oxygen atom carry partial negative charge while di hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charge. Together with di bent structure, dis dey give di molecule electrical dipole moment, and because of dat dem classify am as polar molecule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ball|2001|p=169}}</ref> Water be very good polar solvent, and e fit dissolve plenty salts plus hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars and simple alcohols like ethanol. Water too fit dissolve many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide – di carbon dioxide naim dey give carbonated drinks, sparkling wines and beer dem dia bubbles. Plus, many substances inside living organisms, like proteins, DNA and polysaccharides, dey dissolve inside water. Di interactions between water and di subunits of these biomacromolecules dey shape protein folding, DNA base pairing and other important processes wey make life possible (hydrophobic effect). Many organic substances, such as fats, oils and alkanes, be hydrophobic, meaning say dem no dey dissolve inside water. Plenty inorganic substances too no dey dissolve inside water, including most metal oxides, sulfides and silicates. ===Hydrogen bonding=== {{See also|Chemical bonding of water}} [[File:3D model hydrogen bonds in water.svg|thumb|Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water]] Because of ein polarity, one water molecule for liquid or solid state fit form up to four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. Hydrogen bonds dey about ten times stronger than di Van der Waals force wey normally dey attract molecules together for most liquids. Na dis be why di melting point and boiling point of water dey much higher than those of other similar compounds like hydrogen sulfide. Dem too explain why water get exceptionally high specific heat capacity (about 4.2 J/(g·K)), heat of fusion (about 333 J/g), heat of vaporization ({{nowrap|2257 J/g}}), and thermal conductivity (between 0.561 and 0.679 W/(m·K)). These properties make water very effective for regulating Earth ein climate because e fit store heat and move am between di oceans and atmosphere. Di hydrogen bonds for water be around 23 kJ/mol (compared to covalent O–H bond wey be 492 kJ/mol). Of dis, scientists estimate say 90% come from electrostatic attraction while di remaining 10% get partial covalent nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 March 2000 |title=Compton scattering evidence for covalency of the hydrogen bond in ice|journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=403–406 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3697(99)00325-X |last1=Isaacs |first1=E. D. |last2=Shukla |first2=A |last3=Platzman |first3=P. M. |last4=Hamann |first4=D. R. |last5=Barbiellini |first5=B. |last6=Tulk |first6=C. A. |bibcode=2000JPCS...61..403I}}</ref> These bonds na dem dey cause water ein high surface tension<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |first2=Brad |last2=Williamson |first3=Robin J. |last3=Heyden |title=Biology: Exploring Life |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2006 |location=Boston |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |access-date=11 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and capillary forces. Capillary action mean di tendency of water to move up narrow tube against gravity force. All vascular plants, including trees, depend on dis property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=William J. |last2=Groover |first2=Andrew |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Raffael |last4=Furuta |first4=Kaori |last5=Yadav |first5=Shri-Ram |last6=Helariutta |first6=Ykä |last7=He |first7=Xin-Qiang |last8=Fukuda |first8=Hiroo |last9=Kang |first9=Julie |last10=Brady |first10=Siobhan M. |last11=Patrick |first11=John W. |last12=Sperry |first12=John |last13=Yoshida |first13=Akiko |last14=López-Millán |first14=Ana-Flor |last15=Grusak |first15=Michael A. |date=April 2013 |title=The Plant Vascular System: Evolution, Development and Functions F |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jipb.12041 |journal=Journal of Integrative Plant Biology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=294–388 |doi=10.1111/jipb.12041 |pmid=23462277 |issn=1672-9072|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[File:Heat capacity of water 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Specific heat capacity of water<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heat capacity water online |url=https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Desmos |language=ru |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020344/https://www.desmos.com/calculator/wicmrvrznj?lang=ru |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ===Self-ionization=== {{main|Self-ionization of water}} Water be weak solution of hydronium hydroxide {{Ndash}} there dey equilibrium {{Nowrap|{{chem|2H|2|O}} ⇌ {{chem|H|3|O|+}} + {{chem|OH|-}}}}, together with solvation of di resulting hydronium and hydroxide ions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Ionization of Water and Its Role in Acids and Bases |url=https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Chemistry-Tutorial/Acids-and-Bases/Water-and-Its-Ionization#:~:text=The%20reaction,%20referred%20to%20as,formation%20of%20products%20or%20reactants. |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=www.physicsclassroom.com}}</ref> ===Electrical conductivity and electrolysis=== Pure water get low electrical conductivity, but di conductivity dey increase when small amount of ionic substances, like common salt, dissolve inside am. Liquid water fit split into di elements hydrogen and oxygen when electric current pass through am. Dem dey call dis process electrolysis. Di decomposition process need more energy input than di amount of heat wey di reverse process go release (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Ball |title=Burning water and other myths |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |journal=News@nature |date=14 September 2007 |access-date=14 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228054247/http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.1038/news070910-13 |s2cid=129704116 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mechanical properties=== For most purposes, people fit assume say liquid water no dey compress. Ein compressibility dey range from 4.4 to {{val|5.1|e=-10|u=Pa⁻¹}} under normal conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=R. A. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J.|date=1973 |title=Compressibility of water as a function of temperature and pressure |volume=59 |issue=10 |page=5529 |journal=Journal of Chemical Physics |doi=10.1063/1.1679903 |bibcode=1973JChPh..59.5529F}}</ref> Even for oceans wey get depth of 4&nbsp;km, where pressure reach 400 atm, water volume reduce by only 1.8%.<ref name=nave>{{cite web |title=Bulk Elastic Properties |last=Nave |first=R. |website=HyperPhysics |publisher=Georgia State University |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |access-date=26 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028155517/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html |archive-date=28 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Di viscosity of water be about 10{{sup|−3}} Pa·s or 0.01 poise at {{convert|20|C}}, and di speed of sound for liquid water dey range between {{convert|1400|and|1540|m/s}} depending on temperature. Sound fit travel very long distances through water with very little attenuation, especially for low frequencies (about 0.03 dB/km for 1 kHz). Cetaceans and humans dey take advantage of dis property for communication and environmental sensing through sonar.<ref name=NPLcalc>UK National Physical Laboratory, [http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003014920/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/ |date=3 October 2016 }}. Online site, last accessed on 28 September 2016.</ref> ===Reactivity=== Metallic elements wey dey more electropositive than hydrogen, especially alkali metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Halka |first1=Monica |title=Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals: Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals |last2=Nordstrom |first2=Brian |date=2010 |publisher=Infobase Learning |isbn=978-0-8160-7369-6 |series=Periodic Table of the Elements |location=New York |pages=8 |language=en}}</ref> and to smaller extent alkaline earth metals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ropp |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-59553-9 |location=Oxford |page=2}}</ref> fit replace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas. For high temperatures, coke, wey be one form of carbon, reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=R. E. |last2=Reverson |first2=L. H. |date=1 July 1934 |title=Production of High Hydrogen Water Gas from Younger Coke Coals - Steam-Carbon Reactions |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50295a010 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=734–740 |doi=10.1021/ie50295a010 |issn=0019-7866|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ==On Earth== {{Main|Hydrology|Water distribution on Earth}} <!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Water Distribution.jpg|thumb|Graphical illustration of the Earth's relative water distribution at various locations on or near its surface<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |author=Tom Garrison |title=Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science |edition=7th |publisher=Yolanda Cossio |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-495-39193-7}}</ref>]] --> Hydrology be di study of how water dey move, how e dey distribute, and ein quality across Earth. Di study of water distribution be hydrography. Di study of groundwater distribution and movement be hydrogeology, study of glaciers be glaciology, study of inland waters be limnology, and study of ocean distribution be oceanography. Ecological processes wey involve hydrology be di main focus of ecohydrology. Di total mass of water wey dey on top, under, and above di surface of any planet dey called di hydrosphere. Earth ein estimated total volume of water (all di water supply for di world) be {{convert|1.386|e9km3|e6mi3|abbr=off}}.<ref name=b1 /> ====As a scientific standard==== On 7 April 1795, dem define di gram for France say e go equal "di exact weight of one volume of pure water wey equal cube of one-hundredth of a meter, and for di temperature wey ice dey melt".<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey be one thousand times heavier, wey be di kilogram. So dem assign scientists make dem determine di exact mass of one liter of water. Even though di official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—di scientists decide say dem go redefine di standard and do dia measurements for di temperature where water get ein highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> Di Kelvin temperature scale of di SI system bin dey based on di triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey based on di Boltzmann constant instead. Di scale be absolute temperature scale wey get di same increment as di Celsius temperature scale, wey originally dem define according to di boiling point ({{convert|100|C}}) and melting point ({{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain di isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small quantity of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) too dey inside. Di percentage of these heavier isotopes small well-well, but e still dey affect water ein properties. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of dat, dem define standard water according to di Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] Di human body contain around 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get anywhere between 45% and 75% water for dia body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Di U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend daily intake of {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water for adult men and {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}} for women.<ref name=":2" /> Di exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and oda factors. Most of this water intake come from food and beverages, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Medical literature often support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for average adult man, excluding extra requirements caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress from activities like exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than dia body need during exercise, and this fit put dem for risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit even cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> Di popular claim say "person for drink eight glasses of water every day" no get strong scientific evidence behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say drinking extra water, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Adequate fluid intake too dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] Di original recommendation for water intake wey di Food and Nutrition Board of di U.S. National Research Council make for 1945 talk say: "Normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity already dey inside prepared foods."<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> Di latest dietary reference intake report from di U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on median total water intake from U.S. survey data (including food sources): {{convert|3.7|L}} total water for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} total water for women. Di report note say water from food contribute around 19% of total water intake in di survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. Di US Institute of Medicine recommend say, on average, men for consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women for increase dia intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, and breastfeeding women for get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E still note say normally around 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while di rest come from drinking water and beverages (including caffeinated drinks).<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> Water dey leave di body through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase, and daily fluid needs fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey no get plenty impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds like pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria such as ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some solutes dey acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide necessary electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> Di biggest freshwater resource for di world wey suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> Liquid water dey inside bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ponds and puddles. Most of di water on Earth be seawater. Water too dey present inside di atmosphere in solid, liquid and vapor forms. E also dey underground inside aquifers as groundwater. Water be very important for many geological processes. Groundwater dey inside most rocks, and di pressure from dis groundwater dey affect faulting patterns. Water inside di mantle dey responsible for melting wey produce volcanoes at subduction zones. For Earth ein surface, water be important for both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and ice too to some extent, be responsible for large amount of sediment transport wey happen for Earth ein surface. Deposition of transported sediments dey form many kinds of sedimentary rocks, wey make up di geologic record of Earth history. writing{variant="standard" id="58142"} ===Water cycle=== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|Water cycle]] Water cycle (scientific people dey call am hydrologic cycle) be di continuous movement and exchange of water inside di hydrosphere, between di atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water dey move continuously through all these areas inside di ''water cycle'' through these transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and oda water bodies enter di air, plus transpiration from land plants and animals enter di air. precipitation, wey happen when water vapor condense from di air and fall come earth or ocean. runoff from land wey mostly end up for sea. Most water vapor wey dey come from di ocean dey return back there, but winds dey carry water vapor pass land at almost di same rate as runoff dey carry water enter di sea, about 47 Tt every year. Evaporation and transpiration for land areas too dey add another 72 Tt every year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt every year over land, fit happen in different forms: mostly rain, snow, and hail, plus small contributions from fog and dew.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor-last=Gleick |editor-first=P. H. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |page=15, Table 2.3 |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Dew be small drops of water wey dey form when plenty water vapor meet cool surface. Dew normally dey form for morning time when temperature dey lowest, just before sunrise and before di earth surface start warm up.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alice's Adventures in Water-land |last1=Ben-Naim |first1=A. |last2=Ben-Naim |first2=R. |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |year=2011 |page=31 |doi=10.1142/8068 |isbn=978-981-4338-96-7}}</ref> Water wey condense for di air fit also refract sunlight to create rainbows. Water runoff often dey gather for watersheds and flow enter rivers. Through erosion, runoff dey shape di environment by creating river valleys and river deltas wey provide fertile soil and flat land for human settlements. Flood happen when water cover an area of land, usually low-lying places, because river overflow ein banks or storm surge happen. On di other hand, drought be long period of months or years when one region no get enough water supply. Dis one happen when area dey consistently receive less rainfall than average, either because of ein topography or ein latitude. ===Water resources=== {{Main|Water resources}} Water resources be natural resources of water wey humans fit use for useful purposes,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=water resource |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |access-date=17 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002130105/https://www.britannica.com/science/water-resource |url-status=live }}</ref> like drinking water supply or irrigation water. Water dey exist as both "stocks" and "flows". Water fit be stored as lakes, water vapor, groundwater or aquifers, plus ice and snow. Out of all freshwater for di world, about 69 percent dey stored inside glaciers and permanent snow cover; 30 percent dey groundwater; and di remaining 1 percent dey lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and living organisms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Water in Crisis |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-507627-3 |edition= |location=New York |publication-date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 13] |url=https://archive.org/details/waterincrisisgui00glei/page/13 }}</ref> Di amount of time water dey remain stored differ plenty. Some aquifers get water wey stay there for thousands of years, while lake water fit reduce during dry season and increase during rainy season. Plenty regions depend on water wey dem pump from stored sources, and when withdrawals pass recharge, di stock dey reduce. According to some estimates, up to 30 percent of all water wey irrigation dey use come from unsustainable groundwater extraction, causing groundwater depletion.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Yoshihide|last1=Wada |first2=L. P. H.|last2=Van Beek|first3=Marc F. P. |last3=Bierkens|title=Nonsustainable groundwater sustaining irrigation: A global assessment|journal=Water Resources Research |date= 2012 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=W00L06 |doi=10.1029/2011WR010562|bibcode=2012WRR....48.0L06W |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Seawater and tides=== {{Main|Seawater|Tides}} Seawater get about 3.5% sodium chloride on average, plus smaller amounts of oda substances. Di physical properties of seawater differ from freshwater in some important ways. E dey freeze at lower temperature (about {{convert|-1.9|C}}), and ein density dey increase as temperature dey reduce till e reach freezing point, instead of reaching maximum density above freezing temperature. Water salinity for major seas vary from about 0.7% for di Baltic Sea to 4.0% for di Red Sea. (Di Dead Sea, wey famous for ein very high salinity between 30 and 40%, actually be salt lake.) Tides be di regular rising and falling of local sea levels caused by di tidal forces of di Moon and Sun acting on di oceans. Tides dey cause changes for di depth of marine and estuarine water bodies and create moving currents wey people call tidal streams. Di tide wey happen for any location depend on di changing positions of di Moon and Sun relative to Earth, plus di effects of Earth rotation and local bathymetry. Di part of di seashore wey water cover during high tide and expose during low tide, called di intertidal zone, be important ecological feature created by ocean tides. {{gallery | title = The Bay of Fundy at high tide and low tide | width = 150 | align = center |File:Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpg |High tide |File:Bay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg |Low tide }} ==Effects on life== [[File:Auto-and heterotrophs.svg|thumb|upright|Overview of photosynthesis <span style="color:green;">(green)</span> and respiration <span style="color:red;">(red)</span>]] From biological point of view, water get many unique properties wey make life possible. E perform dis role by allowing organic compounds make reactions wey eventually support replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water be important both as solvent where many body solutes dissolve and as essential part of many metabolic processes inside di body. Metabolism include both anabolism and catabolism. For anabolism, water dey removed from molecules (through energy-demanding enzymatic chemical reactions) to build larger molecules like starches, triglycerides, and proteins for storing fuel and information. For catabolism, water dey used break bonds and produce smaller molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for energy and oda functions. Without water, these metabolic processes no go happen. Water too be central to both photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells dey use energy from sunlight to separate hydrogen from oxygen inside water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalyst helps split water: Plants|url=https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=AskNature|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028194047/https://asknature.org/strategy/catalyst-helps-split-water/|url-status=live}}</ref> In presence of sunlight, di hydrogen combine with {{chem|C|O|2}} (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen.<ref>{{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.O. | date=2001 | title=Photosynthesis, Sixth edition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | publisher=University of Cambridge | isbn=0-521-64497-6 | access-date=26 August 2023 | archive-date=5 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012445/https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7yuf1Sj30C&dq=process+of+photosynthesis&pg=PR7 | url-status=live }}</ref> All living cells dey use these fuels and oxidize di hydrogen and carbon to capture energy from di sun and reform water and {{chem|C|O|2}} during cellular respiration. Water too be important for acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. Acid, wey be hydrogen ion ({{chem|H|+}}) donor, fit be neutralized by base, wey be proton acceptor like hydroxide ion ({{chem|O|H|−}}), to form water. Water dey considered neutral, with pH of 7 under ideal conditions. Acids get pH values below 7 while bases get values above 7. ===Aquatic life forms=== {{Further|Hydrobiology|Marine life|Aquatic plant}} Earth ein surface waters full of life. Di earliest life forms appear for water, and nearly all fish live entirely inside water. Plenty marine mammals too dey exist, including dolphins and whales. Some animals, like amphibians, spend part of their lives inside water and part on land. Plants like kelp and algae grow for water and form di foundation of some underwater ecosystems. Plankton generally be di base of di ocean food chain. Aquatic vertebrates must get oxygen before dem fit survive, and dem get am in different ways. Fish get gills instead of lungs, though some species like lungfish get both. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals must surface from time to time to breathe air. Some amphibians fit absorb oxygen through their skin. Invertebrates show many adaptations for surviving in waters wey get low oxygen levels, including breathing tubes and gills. However, because invertebrate life evolve inside water habitats, most of dem get little or no special adaptation for respiration in water. {{gallery |align=center |File:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef |File:Diatoms through the microscope.jpg|Some marine diatoms – a key phytoplankton group |File:VonDamm Crustaceans.jpg|Squat lobster and Alvinocarididae shrimp at the Von Damm hydrothermal field survive by altered water chemistry. }} ==Effects on human civilization== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2018}} [[File:Longwood Gardens-Italian Garden.jpg|thumb|right|Water fountain]] Human civilization don historically develop around rivers and major waterways. Mesopotamia, one of di so-called cradles of civilization, dey located between di major rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Di ancient Egyptians depend completely on di Nile. Di early Indus Valley civilization ({{Circa|3300 BCE|1300 BCE}}) develop along di Indus River and tributaries wey flow from di Himalayas. Rome too be founded on di banks of di Italian river Tiber. Large cities like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe part of their success to easy access to water and di trade expansion wey come from am. Islands wey get safe water ports, like Singapore, also flourish for di same reason. For places like North Africa and di Middle East, where water scarce, access to clean drinking water be and still be major factor for human development. ===Health and pollution=== [[File: Field Trip- water sampling.jpg|thumb|An environmental science program – a student from Iowa State University sampling water]] Water wey fit be used safely by humans be called drinking water or potable water. Water wey no be potable fit become potable through filtration, distillation, or various water treatment methods. More than 660 million people no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|access-date=13 October 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022119/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/on-water|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2.4 billion Without Adequate Sanitation. 600 million Without Safe Water. Can We Fix it by 2030?|url=https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|access-date=13 October 2020|publisher=World Bank Group|first=Ramachandra |last=Jammi|date=13 March 2018 |language=en|archive-date=14 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014022128/https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/blog/over-24-billion-without-adequate-sanitation-600-million-without-safe-water-how-do-we-bridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Water wey no fit be drunk but no dey harm humans for swimming or bathing get different names apart from potable water, and sometimes people call am safe water or "safe for bathing". Chlorine be chemical wey fit irritate skin and mucous membranes, but dem dey use am make water safe for bathing and drinking. Ein use be highly regulated, usually around 1 ppm for drinking water and 1–2 ppm for bathing water. Water for bathing fit be kept microbiologically safe through chemical disinfectants like chlorine or ozone, or through ultraviolet light. Water reclamation be di process of converting wastewater (mostly sewage or municipal wastewater) into water wey fit be reused for other purposes. About 2.3 billion people live for countries wey dey face water scarcity, meaning say each person get less than {{convert|1700|m3}} of water every year. Around {{convert|380|e9m3}} of municipal wastewater dey produced globally every year.<ref name="EIB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829150040/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/wastewater-resource-recovery |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity |url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |access-date=29 August 2022 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=23 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523125706/https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831234648/http://www.fao.org/3/i1688e/i1688e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Freshwater be renewable resource wey di natural hydrologic cycle dey recycle, but pressure on access to am dey increase because water distribution no equal for space and time, agriculture and industry demands dey rise, and population too dey grow. Currently, nearly one billion people around di world no get access to safe and affordable water. For 2000, di United Nations establish di Millennium Development Goals to cut by half di proportion of people without safe water and sanitation by 2015. Progress no equal everywhere, and for 2015 di UN commit to di Sustainable Development Goals to achieve universal access to safe and affordable water and sanitation by 2030. Poor water quality and bad sanitation dey kill millions; about five million deaths every year relate to water-borne diseases. Di World Health Organization estimate say safe water fit prevent about 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/features/QA/70/en/ |title=World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224174349/http://www.who.int/features/qa/70/en/ |archive-date=24 December 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> For developing countries, 90% of all municipal wastewater still dey enter local rivers and streams without treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Environmentally Sound Technology for Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book |author=UNEP International Environment |year=2002 |publisher=IWA |isbn=978-1-84339-008-4 |oclc=49204666}}</ref> Around 50 countries, representing roughly one-third of di world population, also dey face medium or high water scarcity, and 17 of dem withdraw more water every year than their natural water cycles fit replace.<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Change and Developing Countries |last1=Ravindranath |first1=Nijavalli H. |first2=Jayant A. |last2=Sathaye |year=2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-0104-8 |oclc=231965991}}</ref> Di pressure no dey affect only rivers and lakes; e too dey damage groundwater resources. ===Human uses=== {{Further|Water supply}} [[File:Water withdrawals per capita, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Total water withdrawals for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes per capita, measured in cubic metres (m{{sup|3}}) per year in 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Water withdrawals per capita |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312112519/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/water-withdrawals-per-capita |url-status=live }}</ref>]] ====Agriculture==== Agriculture be di biggest human use of water, including irrigated agriculture, and e account for about 80–90 percent of total human water consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301011840/http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTA|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2012 |title=WBCSD Water Facts & Trends |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> For di United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawals dey go irrigation, but most of di water wey people actually consume (use and no return to di environment) dey go agriculture.<ref name="Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |chapter=Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |doi=10.3133/cir1441 |title=Circular |year=2018 |last1=Dieter |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Maupin |first2=Molly A. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Rodney R. |last4=Harris |first4=Melissa A. |last5=Ivahnenko |first5=Tamara I. |last6=Lovelace |first6=John K. |last7=Barber |first7=Nancy L. |last8=Linsey |first8=Kristin S. |page=76 |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190636/https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/cir1441 |url-status=live }}</ref> Access to freshwater often look normal for developed countries wey build advanced systems for collecting, purifying, distributing water, and removing wastewater. But increasing economic, population, and climate pressures dey raise concerns about water resources and create competition for limited supplies, leading to di concept of peak water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gleick |first1=P. H. |title=Peak Water |url=http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |access-date=11 October 2011 |year=2010 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1004812107 |pmid=20498082 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=125 |pages=11155–11162 |last2=Palaniappan |first2=M. |bibcode=2010PNAS..10711155G |pmc=2895062 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108224340/http://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/peak_water_pnas.pdf |archive-date=8 November 2011 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> As population and economies continue to grow, meat consumption increase, and new demands come from biofuels and water-intensive industries, new water challenges likely go emerge.<ref>United Nations Press Release POP/952 (13 March 2007). [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm "World population will increase by 2.5 billion by 2050"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727030018/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/pop952.doc.htm |date=27 July 2014 }}</ref> Assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by di International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to determine whether di world get enough water to feed its growing population.<ref>, Molden, D. (Ed). ''Water for food, Water for life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture.'' Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.</ref> Di assessment evaluate current water availability for agriculture globally and identify areas suffering from water scarcity. Dem find say one-fifth of di world's population, more than 1.2 billion people, live for areas of physical water scarcity where water no dey enough to satisfy all demands. Another 1.6 billion people live for areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment or human capacity make am impossible to meet water demand. Di report conclude say future food production still possible, but continuing current food production and environmental trends fit create crises for many regions. To avoid global water crisis, farmers go need increase productivity, while industries and cities go need use water more efficiently.<ref>Chartres, C. and Varma, S. (2010) ''Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World's Water Problems''. FT Press (US).</ref> Water scarcity too dey result from production of water-intensive products. For example, producing 1 kg of cotton—about one pair of jeans—requires {{convert|10.9|m3}} of water. Even though cotton account for only 2.4% of global water use, much of di water dey used for regions already facing water shortages. Significant environmental damage don happen because of dis. For example, diversion of water by di former Soviet Union from di Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production be major reason why di Aral Sea almost disappear.<ref>{{cite web |first1=A. K. |last1=Chapagain |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |first3=H. H. G. |last3=Savenije |first4=R. |last4=Guatam |title=The Water Footprint of Cotton Consumption |url=http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |publisher=IHE Delft Institute for Water Education |date=September 2005 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326141524/https://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <gallery width="280px" height="200px"> File:Water requirement per tonne of food product, OWID.svg|Water requirement per tonne of food product File:Subsurface drip emission on loamy soil.ogv|Water distribution in subsurface drip irrigation File:SiphonTubes.JPG|Irrigation of field crops </gallery> writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====As a scientific standard==== For 7 April 1795, France define gram as “the exact weight of pure water wey get volume equal to cube wey each side be one-hundredth of a meter, and at the temperature of melting ice.”<ref>[http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm "Décret relatif aux poids et aux mesures"] [Decree relating to weights and measures] (in French). 18 germinal an 3 (7 April 1795). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225163152/http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm |date=25 February 2013 }}. quartier-rural.org</ref> But for practical use, dem need metallic reference standard wey heavy pass am one thousand times, wey be the kilogram. Because of that, dem assign work make dem determine exactly the mass of one liter of water. Even though the official definition of gram specify water at {{convert|0|C}}—a temperature wey easy to reproduce—the scientists decide say dem go redefine the standard and do their measurements for the temperature wey water get its highest density, wey dem measure that time as {{convert|4|C}}.<ref>[http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm here "L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163108/http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm |date=25 July 2013 }}. histoire.du.metre.free.fr</ref> The Kelvin temperature scale for the SI system originally base on the triple point of water, wey dem define exactly as {{convert|273.16|K|C F}}, but since May 2019 e dey base on the Boltzmann constant instead. The scale be absolute temperature scale wey get the same increment as the Celsius temperature scale, wey dem first define according to the boiling point (set to {{convert|100|C}}) and melting point (set to {{convert|0|C}}) of water. Natural water mostly contain the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but small amount of heavier isotopes like oxygen-18, oxygen-17, and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) dey inside too. The percentage of these heavier isotopes be very small, but e still dey affect the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes usually get fewer heavy isotopes than seawater. Because of that, standard water dey defined according to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification. ====For drinking==== {{Main|Drinking water}} [[File:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|A young girl drinking bottled water]] The human body get about 50–60% water on average, depending on age, gender, and body size, although some people fit get between 45% and 75%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-27 |title=What percentage of the human body is water? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-percentage-of-the-human-body-is-water |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommend say adult men for take about {{Convert|3.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=off|round=}} water every day, while women for take about {{Convert|2.7|L|U.S.gal|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":2" /> The exact amount depend on activity level, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this water people get from food and drinks, not only from plain drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |title=Healthy Water Living |work=BBC Health |access-date=1 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101100025/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml |archive-date=1 January 2007}}</ref> Some medical publications support lower intake, usually around 1 liter of water for an average man, apart from extra needs caused by exercise or hot weather.<ref name=Rhoades_2003>{{cite book |vauthors=Rhoades RA, Tanner GA |title=Medical Physiology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |edition=2nd |location=Baltimore |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7817-1936-0 |oclc=50554808 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000unse }}</ref> Healthy kidneys fit remove between 0.8 and 1 liter of water every hour, but stress such as exercise fit reduce this amount. People fit drink more water than their body need during exercise, and this fit put dem at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), wey fit cause death.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Noakes TD |author2=Goodwin N |author3=Rayner BL |display-authors=etal |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |year=1985 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=370–375 |pmid=4021781 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198506000-00012|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noakes TD, Goodwin N, Rayner BL, Branken T, Taylor RK |title=Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise, 1985 |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |year=2005 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |pmid=16366205 |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[221:WIAPCD]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=28370290 |doi-access= }}</ref> The common claim say “person for drink eight glasses of water every day” no get strong scientific proof behind am.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.' Really? Is there scientific evidence for '8 × 8'? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 |year=2002 |last1=Valtin |first1=Heinz |s2cid=2256436 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222112803/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3595/81eb8fa614a2f8c765dc1d4fed3c0e39ee7e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 February 2019 }}</ref> Studies show say extra water intake, especially up to {{convert|500|mL}} during meals, fit help with weight loss.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vij VA, Joshi AS |title=Effect of 'water induced thermogenesis' on body weight, body mass index and body composition of overweight subjects |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1894–1896 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24179891 |pmc=3809630 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5862.3344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Muckelbauer R, Sarganas G, Grüneis A, Müller-Nordhorn J |title=Association between water consumption and body weight outcomes: a systematic review |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=282–299 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23803882 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.112.055061|s2cid=12265434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Taking enough fluids also dey help prevent constipation.<ref>[http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation "Water, Constipation, Dehydration, and Other Fluids"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304043454/http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/water-a-fluid-way-to-manage-constipation |date=4 March 2015 }}. ''Science Daily''. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> [[File:DIN 4844-2 D-P005.svg|thumb|right|Hazard symbol for non-potable water]] One of the first recommendations about water intake, wey the Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. National Research Council publish for 1945, talk say: “A normal standard for different people be 1 milliliter for every calorie of food. Most of this quantity dey already inside prepared foods.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances |publisher=National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122 |year=1945 |pages=3–18}}</ref> The latest dietary reference intake report from the U.S. National Research Council generally recommend, based on survey data from the United States (including water from food), total water intake of {{convert|3.7|L}} for men and {{convert|2.7|L}} for women. The report also note say water from food contribute about 19% of total water intake in the survey.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate |publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/10925|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5|author1=Institute of Medicine|author2=Food Nutrition Board|author3=Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes|author4=Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water|access-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113063638/https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6|archive-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Pregnant women and breastfeeding women especially need extra fluids make dem stay hydrated. The U.S. Institute of Medicine recommend say men on average make dem consume {{convert|3|L}} and women {{convert|2.2|L}}. Pregnant women should increase their intake to {{convert|2.4|L}}, while breastfeeding women should get 3 liters (12 cups), because plenty fluid dey lost during breastfeeding.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |title=Water: How much should you drink every day? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012725/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> E also note say normally, about 20% of water intake dey come from food,<ref name=HeartOrg2024>{{Cite web |title=Electrolytes can give the body a charge — but try not to overdo it |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2024/06/19/electrolytes-can-give-the-body-a-charge-but-try-not-to-overdo-it |website=American Heart Association |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=HowMuchWater>{{Cite web |title=Water: How Much Water Do You Need? |url=https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/water/ |website=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> while the remaining part come from drinking water and other beverages, including caffeinated drinks.<ref name=HowMuchWater></ref> The body dey remove water through different ways: urine, feces, sweating, and water vapor wey person breathe out.<ref name=DiarrhoealDiseaseWHO>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |website=World Health Organization |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> With physical activity and exposure to heat, water loss go increase and daily fluid requirements fit increase too.<ref name=cdcgovHeatAndColdIllness>{{Cite web |title=Heat and Cold Illness in Travelers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/environmental-hazards-risks/heat-and-cold-illness-in-travelers.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> Humans need water wey get very few impurities. Common impurities include metals like copper and lead;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-30 |title=Chemicals That Can Contaminate Tap Water |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drinking-water/causes/chemicals-that-can-contaminate-tap-water.html |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Center for Disease Control |language=en-us}}</ref> chemical compounds such as pesticides, PFAS, or bleach;<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2025 |title=Types of Drinking Water Contaminants |url=https://www.epa.gov/ccl/types-drinking-water-contaminants |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> and harmful bacteria like ''Campylobacter'', ''E. coli'' O157, and ''Vibrio''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbial fact sheets |date=2022 |work=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579445/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Some dissolved substances are acceptable and even useful because dem improve taste and provide important electrolytes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthea |first2=Jean |last2=Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=McLaughlin |first4=Susan |last4=Johnson |first5=Maryanna Quon |last5=Warner |first6=David |last6=LaHart |first7=Jill D. |last7=Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0 |oclc=32308337 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> The biggest freshwater resource in the world suitable for drinking, by volume, be Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ujf0kkNF2H8C/page/n140 125] |title=Water: a shared responsibility |author=Unesco |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84545-177-6}}</ref> ====Washing==== {{excerpt|washing}} ====Transportation==== {{excerpt|maritime transport|only=paragraphs}} ====Chemical uses==== People dey use water plenty for chemical reactions as solvent or reactant, and less often as solute or catalyst. For inorganic reactions, water be common solvent wey fit dissolve many ionic compounds plus other polar compounds such as ammonia and compounds wey closely resemble water. For organic reactions, people no usually use water as reaction solvent because e no dey dissolve many reactants well and because e be amphoteric (acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Even so, these properties sometimes dey useful. Scientists also observe say water fit speed up Diels-Alder reactions. Supercritical water too recently become important topic for research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water fit burn organic pollutants efficiently. ====Heat exchange==== Water and steam be common fluids for heat exchange because dem easy to get and because water get high heat capacity, whether for cooling or heating. Cool water fit even come naturally from lakes or the sea. Water dey especially effective for transporting heat through vaporization and condensation because e get large latent heat of vaporization. One disadvantage be say metals wey industries commonly use, such as steel and copper, dey oxidize faster when untreated water and steam dey involved. For almost all thermal power stations, dem dey use water as the working fluid (inside a closed-loop system between boiler, steam turbine, and condenser) and also as coolant (to transfer waste heat into a water body or remove am through evaporation in a cooling tower). For the United States, cooling power plants be the biggest use of water.<ref name="Water Use in the United States">[http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html "Water Use in the United States"], ''National Atlas''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814045418/http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_wateruse.html |date=14 August 2009 }}</ref> For the nuclear power industry, water fit also serve as neutron moderator. For most nuclear reactors, water be both coolant and moderator. This provide some passive safety benefit because if water leave the reactor, e also slow down the nuclear reaction. However, other methods dey preferred for stopping reactions completely, and dem prefer make the nuclear core stay covered with water so cooling go continue properly. ====Fire considerations==== [[File:MH-60S Helicopter dumps water onto Fire.jpg|right|thumb|Water is used for fighting wildfires.]] Water get high heat of vaporization and e be relatively inert, so e be good fire-extinguishing fluid. As water evaporate, e carry heat away from the fire. But e dey dangerous to use water on fires involving oils and organic solvents because many organic materials float on water, and the water fit spread the burning liquid. When people dey use water for fire fighting, dem also need consider the danger of steam explosions, wey fit happen when water touch very hot fires in enclosed places. Another danger be hydrogen explosions, wey fit happen when substances wey react with water, such as some metals or very hot carbon materials like coal, charcoal, or coke graphite, break down water and produce water gas. The power of such explosions show clearly during the Chernobyl disaster, although for that case the water no come from fire-fighting but from the reactor’s own cooling system. A steam explosion happen when the reactor core overheat seriously and make water turn suddenly into steam. A hydrogen explosion may also have happened because of the reaction between steam and hot zirconium. Some metallic oxides, especially those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, release so much heat when dem react with water that fire hazards fit develop. The alkaline earth oxide quicklime, also known as calcium oxide, be one mass-produced substance wey people often transport inside paper bags. If water soak the bags, dem fit catch fire because the contents react with water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet: Quicklime |url=https://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |publisher=Lhoist North America |date=6 August 2012 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705030051/http://www.lhoist.com/sites/lhoist/files/lna_msds_quicklime_2012-3.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> :::writing{variant="document" id="58241"} ====Recreation==== {{Main|Water sport (recreation)}} [[File:Johny Cay.jpg|thumb|right|San Andrés island, Colombia]] Humans dey use water for plenty recreational activities, plus exercise and sports too. Some of dem be swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. Plus, some sports like ice hockey and ice skating dey happen on ice. Lakesides, beaches and water parks be popular places wey people dey go relax and enjoy themselves. Plenty people dey find the sound and look of flowing water very calming, and fountains plus other flowing-water structures dey serve as popular decorations. Some people too dey keep fish and other plants and animals inside aquariums or ponds for display, enjoyment and companionship. Humans also dey use water for snow sports such as skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, wey all require say the water dey low temperature either as ice or as crystallized snow. ====Water industry==== The water industry dey provide drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) for households and industries. Water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators too dey under development. Drinking water often dey come from springs, artificial borings (wells) for ground, or dem dey pump am from lakes and rivers. Building more wells for suitable places fit help increase water supply, as long as the aquifers fit provide enough water flow. Other water sources include rainwater collection. Water fit need purification before humans go fit drink am. This fit involve removing undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods include filtering with sand, wey mainly removes undissolved materials, while chlorination and boiling dey kill harmful microbes. Distillation dey perform all three functions. More advanced techniques such as reverse osmosis dey exist. Desalination of abundant seawater be a more expensive solution wey coastal arid climates dey use. Distribution of drinking water dey happen through municipal water systems, tanker deliveries, or as bottled water. Governments for many countries get programs wey dey distribute water to needy people free of charge. Another option be to reduce usage by reserving drinking (potable) water mainly for human consumption. For some cities like Hong Kong, dem dey use seawater extensively for flushing toilets across the whole city to conserve freshwater resources. Polluting water fit be the biggest misuse of water. As long as a pollutant limits other ways people fit use the water, e become waste of the resource, no matter the benefit to the polluter. Like other forms of pollution, this one no dey enter standard market cost accounting because dem dey treat am as externalities wey the market no fit properly account for. So other people dey pay the cost of water pollution, while profits from private companies no dey redistribute to the local people wey suffer from the pollution. Pharmaceuticals wey humans consume often end up inside waterways and fit negatively affect aquatic life if dem bioaccumulate and if dem no be biodegradable. Municipal and industrial wastewater usually dey receive treatment for wastewater treatment plants. Mitigation of polluted surface runoff dey happen through different prevention and treatment techniques. {{gallery |align=center |File:Water carrier in India.jpg|A water-carrier for India, 1882. For many places wey running water no dey available, people have to transport water by themselves. |File:TapWater-china.JPG|A manual water pump for China |File:Usine Bret MG 1648.jpg|Water purification facility |File:Reverse osmosis desalination plant.JPG|Reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant for Barcelona, Spain }} ====Industrial applications==== Plenty industrial processes depend on chemical reactions wey happen inside water, suspension of solids inside water slurries, or use of water to dissolve and extract substances, or to wash products and equipment. Processes such as mining, chemical pulping, pulp bleaching, paper manufacturing, textile production, dyeing, printing and cooling of power plants dey use large amounts of water. These activities require dedicated water sources and often cause serious water pollution. Water too dey play important role for power generation. Hydroelectricity be electricity wey come from hydropower. Hydroelectric power dey come from water wey dey drive a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity be low-cost, non-polluting and renewable energy source. The movement of water dey provide the energy. Usually, dem build dam for river, creating artificial lake behind am. Water wey flows out from the lake dey pass through turbines wey turn generators. {{wide image|200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-4.med.jpg|800px|Three Gorges Dam be the largest hydro-electric power station for the world.}} Dem dey use pressurized water for water blasting and water jet cutters. High-pressure water guns dey provide very precise cutting. E dey work very well, e relatively safe, and e no dey harm the environment. Dem also dey use am to cool machinery and prevent overheating, or stop saw blades from overheating. Water too dey play role inside many industrial processes and machines, such as steam turbines and heat exchangers, apart from its use as chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial activities be water pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry needs pure water for many applications, and dey use different purification techniques both for water supply and discharge. The digital sector, especially Artificial intelligence, dey use huge amounts of water. Because of that, AI expansion fit threaten global and national water security.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kenny |first1=Rich |last2=Lunj |first2=Avinash |last3=Kis |first3=Alexandra |title=AI’s thirst for water |url=https://sustainableict.blog.gov.uk/2025/09/17/ais-thirst-for-water/ |website=GOV UK |publisher=the Government Digital Sustainability Alliance (GDSA) |access-date=5 February 2026}}</ref> ====Food processing==== [[File:Cuisson des pates.jpg|thumb|Water fit be used to cook foods such as noodles.]] [[File:Sterilewater.jpg|thumb|upright|Sterile water for injection]] Boiling, steaming and simmering be popular cooking methods wey often require food to stay inside water or steam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|title=A Course in Household Arts: Part I|last=Duff|first=Loretto Basil|date=1916|publisher=Whitcomb & Barrows|access-date=3 December 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164100/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZHUAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA54|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem also dey use water for dishwashing. Water too dey play many important roles inside food science. Solutes such as salts and sugars wey dey inside water fit affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water dey change because of solutes and air pressure, and air pressure itself dey affected by altitude. Water dey boil at lower temperatures for places wey air pressure low because of higher elevation. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water dey increase water boiling point by {{convert|0.51|C-change|3}}, while one mole of salt per kilogram dey increase am by {{convert|1.02|C-change|3}}. In the same way, increasing dissolved particles dey lower the freezing point of water.<ref name="vaclacik">{{cite book |title=Essentials of Food Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |year=2007 |last1=Vaclavik |first1=Vickie A. |last2=Christian |first2=Elizabeth W. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-69939-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164352/https://books.google.com/books?id=iCCsvwZrguUC |url-status=live }}</ref> Solutes inside water too dey affect water activity, and that one dey influence plenty chemical reactions plus microbial growth inside food.<ref name="deman">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |title=Principles of Food Chemistry |year=1999 |last=DeMan |first=John M. |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-8342-1234-3 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414185952/https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYJ7a1HbD0C&pg=PA434 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water activity fit be described as the ratio between vapor pressure of water inside a solution and vapor pressure of pure water.<ref name="vaclacik" /> Solutes inside water dey lower water activity, and this be important because most bacteria growth stops when water activity become very low.<ref name="deman" /> Microbial growth no only affect food safety, but e also affects preservation and shelf life of food. Water hardness too be important factor for food processing, and dem fit alter or treat am by using chemical ion exchange systems. E fit greatly affect product quality and sanitation. Water hardness dey classified according to the concentration of calcium carbonate inside the water. Water be classified as soft if e contains less than 100 mg/L (UK)<ref name="DEFRA">{{cite web |url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |title=Map showing the rate of hardness in mg/L as Calcium carbonate in England and Wales |publisher=DEFRA Drinking Water Inspectorate |date=2009 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529054911/http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> or less than 60 mg/L (US).<ref name="USGS">{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |publisher=US Geological Service |title=Water hardness |date=8 April 2014 |access-date=18 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518204909/https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to report wey Water Footprint organization publish for 2010, one kilogram of beef requires {{convert|15|e3L|e3impgal+e3usgal}} of water. However, the authors make am clear say this be global average and local conditions fit affect the amount of water wey beef production go use.<ref>{{cite report |title=The green, blue and grey water footprint of farm animals and animal products, Value of Water |series=Research Report Series |volume=1|issue=48 |url=http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |publisher=UNESCO – IHE Institute for Water Education |access-date=30 January 2014 |first1=M. M. |last1=Mekonnen |first2=A. Y. |last2=Hoekstra |date=December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527104135/http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ====Medical use==== Water for injection dey on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |title=WHO Model List of EssentialMedicines |date=October 2013 |website=World Health Organization |access-date=22 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423005004/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/93142/1/EML_18_eng.pdf?ua=1 |archive-date=23 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Distribution in nature== ===In the universe=== [[File:Band 5 ALMA receiver.jpg|thumb|Band 5 ALMA receiver be instrument wey dem design specially to detect water for the universe.<ref>{{cite web |title=ALMA Greatly Improves Capacity to Search for Water in Universe |url=http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |access-date=20 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723070436/http://www.eso.org/public/announcements/ann15059/ |archive-date=23 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] A large part of the water for the universe dey form as byproduct of star formation. When stars dey form, strong outward winds of gas and dust dey accompany the process. When this material eventually hits the surrounding gas, the shock waves wey form dey compress and heat the gas. The water wey scientists observe then dey form quickly inside this warm and dense gas.<ref>Melnick, Gary, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and Neufeld, David, Johns Hopkins University quoted in: {{cite web |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |title=Discover of Water Vapor Near Orion Nebula Suggests Possible Origin of H20 in Solar System (sic) |date=23 April 1998 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000116054013/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html |archive-date=16 January 2000 }} {{cite news |url=http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |title=Space Cloud Holds Enough Water to Fill Earth's Oceans 1 Million Times |date=9 April 1998 |publisher=Headlines@Hopkins, JHU |access-date=21 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109171410/http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html |archive-date=9 November 2007 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |title=Water, Water Everywhere: Radio telescope finds water is common in universe |date=25 February 1999 |website=The Harvard University Gazette |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519141432/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html |archive-date=19 May 2011 |url-status=live }} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160715053715/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html archive link])</ref> On 22 July 2011, one report describe discovery of huge water-vapor cloud wey contain “140 trillion times more water than all Earth oceans combined” around one quasar located 12 billion light years away from Earth. According to the researchers, the discovery show say water don dey common for the universe for almost all of its existence.<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=NASA |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Space.com |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scientists don detect water inside interstellar clouds within the Milky Way.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |title=Faint Echoes, Distant Stars: The Science and Politics of Finding Life Beyond Earth |last=Bova |first=Ben |year=2009 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-06-185448-4 |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414164517/https://books.google.com/books?id=m1gfe459yygC&pg=PA90 |url-status=live }}</ref> Water likely dey plenty for other galaxies too because hydrogen and oxygen, wey be the components of water, be among the most abundant elements for the universe. Based on models of the formation and evolution of the Solar System and other star systems, most other planetary systems likely get similar ingredients. writing{variant="document" id="58142"} ====Water vapor==== Water dey exist as vapor for: Atmosphere of the Sun: e dey inside for small trace amounts.<ref name=Solanki1994>{{cite journal |last1=Solanki |first1=S.K. |last2=Livingston |first2=W. |last3=Ayres |first3=T. |year=1994 |title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pmid=17748350 |volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66 |bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S |doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64 |s2cid=27696504 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030222/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, plus plenty water for Mercury ein exosphere.<ref name="planetary society">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |title=MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere |access-date=5 July 2008 |publisher=Planetary Society |date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034624/http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%.<ref name=Bertaux2007>{{cite journal |last=Bertaux |first=Jean-Loup |title=A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=450 |pages=646–649 |doi=10.1038/nature05974 |bibcode=2007Natur.450..646B |pmid=18046397 |issue=7170 |author2=Vandaele, Ann-Carine |last3=Korablev |first3=Oleg |last4=Villard |first4=E. |last5=Fedorova |first5=A. |last6=Fussen |first6=D. |last7=Quémerais |first7=E. |last8=Belyaev |first8=D. |last9=Mahieux |first9=A. |hdl=2268/29200 |s2cid=4421875 |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122145/https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Earth's atmosphere: about 0.40% for the whole atmosphere, but normally 1–4% near the surface. Atmosphere of the Moon: e dey inside for small trace amounts.<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |last1=Sridharan |first1=R. |first2=S.M. |last2=Ahmed |first3=Tirtha Pratim |last3=Dasa |first4=P. |last4=Sreelathaa |first5=P. |last5=Pradeepkumara |first6=Neha |last6=Naika |first7=Gogulapati |last7=Supriya |year=2010 |page=947 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%.<ref name="Rapp2012">{{cite book |author=Rapp, Donald |title=Use of Extraterrestrial Resources for Human Space Missions to Moon or Mars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-32762-9 |page=78 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715154349/https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Atmosphere of Ceres.<ref name="Kuppers2014">{{cite journal |last1=Küppers |first1=M. |last2=O'Rourke |first2=L. |last3=Bockelée-Morvan |first3=D.|author3-link=Dominique Bockelée-Morvan |last4=Zakharov |first4=V. |last5=Lee |first5=S. |last6=Von Allmen |first6=P. |last7=Carry |first7=B. |last8=Teyssier |first8=D. |last9=Marston |first9=A. |last10=Müller |first10=T. |last11=Crovisier |first11=J. |last12=Barucci |first12=M.A. |last13=Moreno |first13=R. |title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres |journal=Nature |volume=505 |issue=7484 |date=23 January 2014 |pages=525–527|doi=10.1038/nature12918 |pmid=24451541 |bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|s2cid=4448395 }}</ref> Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1951-5 |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Wong |first2=Ah-San |year=2005 |title=Coupled Clouds and Chemistry of the Giant Planets – A Case for Multiprobes |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=116 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–136 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |bibcode=2005SSRv..116..121A |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722074717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live |hdl=2027.42/43766 |s2cid=31037195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Water for Jupiter mostly dey as ice, and e dey for ein moon Europa too.<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053143/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Atmosphere of Saturn: water mostly dey as ice. Enceladus get about 91% water vapor plume,<ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121254 |title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume |year=2006 |author=Hansen |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1422–1425 |pmid=16527971 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H |author2=C.J.|last3=Stewart |first3=AI |last4=Colwell |first4=J |last5=Hendrix |first5=A |last6=Pryor |first6=W |last7=Shemansky |first7=D |last8=West |first8=R|s2cid=2954801 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132849/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> and Dione fit get underground ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez-Maes |first=Sophia |date=January 11, 2017 |title=Solid Evidence for Liquid Water on Dione |url=https://www.yalescientific.org/2017/01/solid-evidence-for-liquid-water-on-dione/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Yale Scientific Magazine}}</ref> Atmosphere of Uranus: water vapor dey inside for very small amounts below 50 bar. Atmosphere of Neptune: water dey for the deeper layers.<ref name=hubbard>{{cite journal |last=Hubbard |first=W.B. |title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry |journal=Science |year=1997 |volume=275 |issue=5304 |pages=1279–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279 |pmid=9064785|s2cid=36248590 }}</ref> Extrasolar planet atmospheres: water vapor don dey detected for planets like HD 189733 b,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html Water Found on Distant Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716081124/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html |date=16 July 2007 }} 12 July 2007 By Laura Blue, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> HD 209458 b,<ref name="Space.com water">[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230065702/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html |date=30 December 2010 }} – Space.com</ref> Tau Boötis b,<ref>{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1402.0846|last1 = Lockwood|first1 = Alexandra C|title = Near-IR Direct Detection of Water Vapor in Tau Boo B|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 783|issue = 2|pages = L29|last2 = Johnson|first2 = John A|last3 = Bender|first3 = Chad F|last4 = Carr|first4 = John S|last5 = Barman|first5 = Travis|last6 = Richert|first6 = Alexander J.W.|last7 = Blake|first7 = Geoffrey A|year = 2014|doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29|bibcode = 2014ApJ...783L..29L|s2cid = 8463125}}</ref> HAT-P-11b,<ref name="NASA-20140924">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Chou |first2=Felicia |last3=Weaver |first3=Donna |last4=Villard |first45=Ray |last5=Johnson |first5=Michele |title=NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |date=24 September 2014 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114220647/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hanslmeier2010">{{cite book |author=Arnold Hanslmeier |title=Water in the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-9984-6 |pages=159– |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715031920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.<ref name="NASA-20131203">{{cite web |title=Hubble Traces Subtle Signals of Water on Hazy Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |date=3 December 2013 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206012837/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |archive-date=6 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Stellar atmospheres: water vapor no dey only for cool stars. Scientists don detect am too for giant hot stars like Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares and Arcturus.<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /><ref name="Lund Observatory">Andersson, Jonas (June 2012). [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 Water in stellar atmospheres "Is a novel picture required to explain the atmospheric behavior of water in red giant stars?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213133956/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 |date=13 February 2015 }} Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden</ref> Circumstellar disks: water vapor dey inside the disks around more than half of T Tauri stars, including AA Tauri,<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /> plus TW Hydrae,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html Herschel Finds Oceans of Water in Disk of Nearby Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219053556/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html |date=19 February 2015 }}. Nasa.gov (20 October 2011). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jpl.nasa.gov/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604082809/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2011-327|url-status=dead|title=JPL|archivedate=4 June 2012|website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)}}</ref> IRC +10216,<ref>Lloyd, Robin. ''"Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star"'', 11 July 2001, [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html Space.com]. Retrieved 15 December 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523025818/http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html |date=23 May 2009 }}</ref> and APM 08279+5255,<ref name="Clavin" /><ref name="water vapor cloud" /> VY Canis Majoris and S Persei.<ref name="Lund Observatory" /> :::writing{variant="document" id="58421"} ====Liquid water==== {{Further|List of largest lakes and seas in the Solar System|Extraterrestrial liquid water}} Liquid water dey Earth, and e cover 71% of the planet surface.<ref name="WSS" /> Small amounts of liquid water too dey show for Mars from time to time.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA Confirms Evidence That Liquid Water Flows on Today's Mars |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-confirms-evidence-that-liquid-water-flows-on-today-s-mars |website=NASA |access-date=22 June 2020 |date=28 September 2015 |archive-date=2026-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260124210234/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-confirms-evidence-that-liquid-water-flows-on-todays-mars/|url-status=live }}</ref> Scientists believe say liquid water dey Saturn ein moons Enceladus and Titan. For Enceladus, dem think say one ocean wey thick pass 10 kilometres dey about 30–40 kilometres under the south polar surface.<ref name="NASA-20140403">{{cite web |last1=Platt |first1=Jane |last2=Bell |first2=Brian |title=NASA Space Assets Detect Ocean inside Saturn Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-103 |date=3 April 2014 |website=NASA |access-date=3 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140403235224/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-103 |archive-date=3 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="SCI-20140404">{{cite journal |last1=Iess |first1=L. |last2=Stevenson |first2=D. J. |last3=Parisi |first3=M. |last4=Hemingway |first4=D. |last5=Jacobson |first5=R.A. |last6=Lunine |first6=Jonathan I. |last7=Nimmo |first7=F. |last8=Armstrong |first8=J. W. |last9=Asmar |first9=S. W. |last10=Ducci |first10=M. |last11=Tortora |first11=P. |title=The Gravity Field and Interior Structure of Enceladus |date=4 April 2014 |journal=Science |volume=344 |number=6179 |pages=78–80 |doi=10.1126/science.1250551 |bibcode=2014Sci...344...78I |pmid=24700854|s2cid=28990283 |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/45462/7/Iess-SM.pdf |access-date=14 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202120709/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/45462/7/Iess-SM.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> For Titan, liquid water fit dey underground and e fit mix with ammonia too.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2013/pdf/2454.pdf |bibcode=2013LPI....44.2454D |author1=Dunaeva, A.N. |author2=Kronrod, V.A. |author3=Kuskov, O.L. |title=Numerical Models of Titan's Interior with Subsurface Ocean |journal=44th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2013) |issue=1719 |page=2454 |year=2013 |access-date=23 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323033113/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2013/pdf/2454.pdf |archive-date=23 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Jupiter ein moon Europa get surface features wey suggest say liquid water ocean dey under the surface.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.msoe.edu/~tritt/sf/europa.life.html |title=Possibility of Life on Europa |last=Tritt |first=Charles S. |access-date=10 August 2007 |publisher=Milwaukee School of Engineering |date=2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150109/http://people.msoe.edu/~tritt/sf/europa.life.html |archive-date=9 June 2007}}</ref> Liquid water fit dey Jupiter ein moon Ganymede too, as one layer wey dey between high-pressure ice and rock.<ref>Dunham, Will. (3 May 2014) [http://in.reuters.com/article/us-space-ganymede-idINKBN0DJ00H20140503 Jupiter's moon Ganymede may have 'club sandwich' layers of ocean | Reuters] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503100145/http://in.reuters.com/article/2014/05/03/us-space-ganymede-idINKBN0DJ00H20140503 |date=3 May 2014 }}. In.reuters.com. Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> ====Water ice==== Water dey as ice for: [[File:Plan view of Korolev crater.jpg|thumb|Water ice for Korolev crater on Mars]] Mars: under the regolith and for the poles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=M.H. |date=1996 |title=Water on Mars |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bibring |first1=J.-P. |last2=Langevin |first2=Yves |date=2004 |title=Perennial Water Ice Identified in the South Polar Cap of Mars |journal=Nature |volume=428 |issue=6983 |pages=627–630 |doi=10.1038/nature02461|pmid=15024393 |last3=Poulet |first3=François |last4=Gendrin |first4=Aline |last5=Gondet |first5=Brigitte |last6=Berthé |first6=Michel |last7=Soufflot |first7=Alain |last8=Drossart |first8=Pierre |last9=Combes |first9=Michel |last10=Bellucci |first10=Giancarlo |last11=Moroz |first11=Vassili |last12=Mangold |first12=Nicolas |last13=Schmitt |first13=Bernard |last14=Omega Team |first14=the|last15=Erard |first15=S. |last16=Forni |first16=O. |last17=Manaud |first17=N. |last18=Poulleau |first18=G. |last19=Encrenaz |first19=T.|author19-link=Thérèse Encrenaz |last20=Fouchet |first20=T. |last21=Melchiorri |first21=R. |last22=Altieri |first22=F. |last23=Formisano |first23=V. |last24=Bonello |first24=G. |last25=Fonti |first25=S. |last26=Capaccioni |first26=F. |last27=Cerroni |first27=P. |last28=Coradini |first28=A. |last29=Kottsov |first29=V. |last30=Ignatiev |first30=N. |bibcode=2004Natur.428..627B |s2cid=4373206 |url=https://hal.science/hal-03785230v1/file/bibring2004.pdf }}</ref> Earth–Moon system: mostly as ice sheets for Earth and inside lunar craters plus volcanic rocks.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html Versteckt in Glasperlen: Auf dem Mond gibt es Wasser – Wissenschaft –] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710220126/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html |date=10 July 2008 }} Der Spiegel – Nachrichten</ref> NASA report say dem detect water molecules through NASA Moon Mineralogy Mapper aboard Indian Space Research Organization ein Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft for September 2009.<ref>[https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm Water Molecules Found on the Moon] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927092541/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm |date=27 September 2009 }}, NASA, 24 September 2009</ref> Ceres.<ref name="McCord2005-jgrp">{{cite journal |title=Ceres: Evolution and current state |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |date=21 May 2005 |last1=McCord |first1=T.B. |last2=Sotin |first2=C. |volume=110 |issue=E5 |page=E05009 |doi=10.1029/2004JE002244 |bibcode=2005JGRE..110.5009M |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |access-date=5 March 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718171117/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Thomas2005">{{cite journal |first1=P.C. |last1=Thomas |last2=Parker|first2=J.Wm.|last3=McFadden|first3= L.A. |title=Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape |year=2005 |journal=Nature |volume=437 |pages=224–226 |doi=10.1038/nature03938 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..224T |pmid=16148926 |issue=7056 |s2cid=17758979}}</ref><ref name="Carey2006">{{cite news|url=http://space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |title=Largest Asteroid Might Contain More Fresh Water than Earth |first=Bjorn |last=Carey |publisher=SPACE.com |date=7 September 2005 |access-date=16 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218180330/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |archive-date=18 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Jupiter ein moons: Europa ein surface, Ganymede ein surface,<ref name="NYT-20150315">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Suddenly, It Seems, Water Is Everywhere in Solar System |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |date=12 March 2015 |work=New York Times |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812232556/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |archive-date=12 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and Callisto.<ref name=Kuskov2005>{{cite journal| last=Kuskov|first=O.L.|author2=Kronrod, V.A.|title=Internal structure of Europa and Callisto| year=2005|volume=177| issue=2|pages=550–369|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.014| bibcode=2005Icar..177..550K| journal = Icarus}}</ref><ref name="Showman1999">{{cite journal|last1= Showman|first1=A. P.|last2= Malhotra|first2= R.|title=The Galilean Satellites|journal= Science|volume= 286|issue= 5437|date= 1 October 1999|pages =77–84|doi= 10.1126/science.286.5437.77|pmid=10506564|bibcode=1999Sci...286...77S |s2cid=9492520|url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200412142819/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 12 April 2020}}</ref> Saturn: for the planet ein ring system,<ref name="Sparrow">{{cite book |last=Sparrow |first=Giles |title=The Solar System |publisher=Thunder Bay Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59223-579-7}}</ref> plus for the surface and mantle of Titan,<ref name="Tobie">{{cite journal |last1=Tobie |first1=G. |last2=Grasset |first2=Olivier |last3=Lunine |first3=Jonathan I. |last4=Mocquet |first4=Antoine |last5=Sotin |first5=Christophe |date=2005 |bibcode=2005Icar..175..496T |title=Titan's internal structure inferred from a coupled thermal-orbital model |journal=Icarus |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=496–502 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.12.007 }}</ref> and Enceladus.<ref name="Verbiscer et al. 2007">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1134681| last1 = Verbiscer| first1 = A.| last2 = French| first2 = R.| last3 = Showalter| first3 = M.| last4 = Helfenstein| first4 = P.| title = Enceladus: Cosmic Graffiti Artist Caught in the Act| journal = Science| volume = 315| issue = 5813| page = 815| date = 9 February 2007| pmid = 17289992| bibcode = 2007Sci...315..815V| s2cid = 21932253| ref = {{sfnRef|Verbiscer French et al.|2007}}| df = dmy-all}} (supporting online material, table S1)</ref> Pluto–Charon system.<ref name="Sparrow" /> Comets.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1998A&A...330..375G |title=Making a comet nucleus |last1=Greenberg |first1=J. Mayo |volume=330 |date=1998 |page=375 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |title=Dirty Snowballs in Space |publisher=Starryskies |access-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129035627/http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |archive-date=29 January 2013}}</ref> and other related Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects.<ref>{{cite journal |author=E.L. Gibb |author2=M.J. Mumma |author3=N. Dello Russo |author4=M.A. DiSanti |author5=K. Magee-Sauer |date=2003 |title=Methane in Oort Cloud comets |journal=Icarus |volume=165 |issue=2 |pages=391–406 |bibcode=2003Icar..165..391G |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00201-X }}</ref> And scientists believe say water ice fit dey for: Mercury ein poles.<ref>NASA, "[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html MESSENGER Finds New Evidence for Water Ice at Mercury's Poles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130062257/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html |date=30 November 2012 }}", ''NASA'', 29 November 2012.</ref> Tethys.<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.012| last1 = Thomas| first1 = P.C.| last2 = Burns| first2 = J.A.| last3 = Helfenstein| first3 = P.| last4 = Squyres| first4 = S.| last5 = Veverka| first5 = J.| last6 = Porco| first6 = C.| last7 = Turtle| first7 = E.P.| last8 = McEwen| first8 = A.| last9 = Denk| first9 = T.| first10 = B.| last10 = Giesef| first11 = T.| last11 = Roatschf| first12 = T.V.| last12 = Johnsong| first13 = R.A.| last13 = Jacobsong| date = October 2007| title = Shapes of the saturnian icy satellites and their significance| journal = Icarus| volume = 190| issue = 2| pages = 573–584| bibcode = 2007Icar..190..573T| url = http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| access-date = 15 December 2011| ref = {{sfnRef|Thomas Burns et al.|2007}}| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927220431/http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| archive-date = 27 September 2011| url-status=live| df = dmy-all}}</ref> cilnp7n39z3prfq1c73jvwxwxwjqymh 14 27474 102018 2026-06-12T00:05:17Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102018 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27475 102019 2026-06-12T00:05:37Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102019 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27476 102020 2026-06-12T04:57:14Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102020 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Benin}} The '''Agbado River''' be river of [[Benin]].<ref>Rand McNally, ''The New International Atlas'', 1993.</ref> Edey flow through [[Maxi people|Maxi]] territory go de north of [[Abomey]].<ref name="HerskovitsHerskovits1964">{{cite book|last1=Herskovits|first1=Melville Jean|last2=Herskovits|first2=Frances Shapiro|title=An outline of Dahomean religious belief|url=https://archive.org/details/outlineofdahomea0000hers|url-access=registration|accessdate=30 April 2012|year=1964|publisher=Kraus|page=[https://archive.org/details/outlineofdahomea0000hers/page/63 63]}}</ref> Edey flow south from ein source insyd northern [[Collines Department]], edey pass de town of [[Savalou]], den discharge go de [[Zou River]] insyd wey dey [[Atchérigbé Classified Forest]] near [[Setto]].<ref>''[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/africa/txu-oclc-6589746-sheet17-6th-ed.jpg Sheet 17: Lagos]'' (Map). 1:2,000,000. Series 2201. Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center. April 1973.</ref> ==References== [[Category:Rivers of Benin]] fzavg258gkmoew0pol1jn6xxveslpza 102021 102020 2026-06-12T04:59:44Z Yaw tuba 7 added databox #AWC2026 102021 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q4691641}} {{short description|River in Benin}} The '''Agbado River''' be river of [[Benin]].<ref>Rand McNally, ''The New International Atlas'', 1993.</ref> Edey flow through [[Maxi people|Maxi]] territory go de north of [[Abomey]].<ref name="HerskovitsHerskovits1964">{{cite book|last1=Herskovits|first1=Melville Jean|last2=Herskovits|first2=Frances Shapiro|title=An outline of Dahomean religious belief|url=https://archive.org/details/outlineofdahomea0000hers|url-access=registration|accessdate=30 April 2012|year=1964|publisher=Kraus|page=[https://archive.org/details/outlineofdahomea0000hers/page/63 63]}}</ref> Edey flow south from ein source insyd northern [[Collines Department]], edey pass de town of [[Savalou]], den discharge go de [[Zou River]] insyd wey dey [[Atchérigbé Classified Forest]] near [[Setto]].<ref>''[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/africa/txu-oclc-6589746-sheet17-6th-ed.jpg Sheet 17: Lagos]'' (Map). 1:2,000,000. Series 2201. Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center. April 1973.</ref> ==References== [[Category:Rivers of Benin]] p0by8vmpqqumlb760bjooncox4szorz 0 27477 102022 2026-06-12T05:31:34Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in South Africa}} De '''Buffalo River''' dey insyd dee city of [[East London, South Africa|East London]] on de East Coast of South Africa. Edey de west of de [[Nahoon River]]. Ebe de only navigable river insyd South Africa.Dem establish de town of East London around am. ==Ein Course== [[File:Buffalo River Bridge - East London Harbour - Cape Colony 1875.jpg|left|thumb|Original bridge over Buffalo River in East London built by the [[John Charles Molteno|Molteno Government]] in the 1870s as part of its East London - Queenstown line]] De Buffalo River get ein source insyd de seeps den sponges of de [[Amatola Mountains]] for altitude of 1200 m.<ref name="Health">{{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Report Highlights Impacts on River Health (Buffalo River)|journal=The Water Wheel|issue=March/April|pages=8&ndash;11|url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|access-date=2013-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611070827/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> De river be 126 kilometres long wey edey drain catchment of 1287 square kilometres.<ref name="Health" /> From ein source, de river dey descend through indigenous forest insyd deeply incised channel, flanked by rock cliffs up to 120 metres high. De quality of dese headwaters be good. After only seven kilometres, de river dey face ein first obstruction, de small [[Maden Dam]], wey dem build insyd 1910 ({{Age|1910|6|3}} years old).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maden Dam details |url=https://www.artefacts.co.za/main/Buildings/bldgframes.php?bldgid=10208 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=www.artefacts.co.za}}</ref> Four kilometres downstream of Maden Dam, de much larger [[Rooikrantz Dam]] dey impound about five million cubic metres. Rooikrantz Dam dey supply water give [[King William's Town]] den ein surrounding areas. Twenty kilometres from ein source, for altitude of 450 metres above mean sea level, de [[Cwengcwe River]] den [[Izele River]] join de Buffalo from de northeast. From here de river dey run through undulating plains. Two major tributaries from de west wey dey join de middle section of de Buffalo River are the [[Mgqakwebe River]] just upstream of King William's Town and the [[Ngqokweni River]] at [[Zwelitsha]]. Plus de oda important tributary be de [[Yellowwoods River]], plus e dey flow from de north come straight enter Laing Dam. Wen e full, [[Laing Dam]] dey cover 203 hectares and e get 20 million cubic metres of water. From Laing Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow go east for 40 kilometres reach Bridle Drift Dam, wey be de biggest impoundment for de river, plus full supply volume of 101 million cubic metres. Small streams for de northern bank dey carry runoff come straight enter Bridle Drift Dam from [[Mdantsane]], wey be de second biggest township for Eastern Cape. From Bridle Drift Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow pass low-altitude coastal forest for twenty kilometres and e form de northern border of Umtiza Nature Reserve before e enter de [[Indian Ocean]] through de [[estuary]]<nowiki/>harbour of East London. ==Ein Ecology== The [[endangered]] [[border barb]] dey live insyd de waters of de Buffalo River.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/2573/0 Barbus trevelyani]</ref> Small population of de [[endangered]] [[Eastern Province rocky]] ''(Sandelia bainsii)'' dey insyd de Yellowwoods River, part of de Buffalo River basin.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all Sandelia bainsii]</ref> Presently dis river be part of de [[Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area]].<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> ==Ein Tributaries== Include die [[Mgqakwebe River]], [[Ngqokweni River]] den [[Yellowwoods River]], dis last river dey include some waterfalls de largest wey be de [[Yellowwoods Falls]], near [[Breidbach]]. == Sana spy == * [[List of rivers of South Africa]] * [[List of estuaries of South Africa]] * [[Umtiza Nature Reserve]] == References == {{reflist}} ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008000151/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/buffalo.html Buffalo River Estuary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111080504/http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/water_infrastructure.stm Amatola water] [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] [[Category:East London, South Africa]] 2pu1uj0b7xy0aqlj7xkdj3wbopust9j 102023 102022 2026-06-12T05:34:44Z Yaw tuba 7 added databox #AWC2026 102023 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002068}} {{short description|River in South Africa}} De '''Buffalo River''' dey insyd dee city of [[East London, South Africa|East London]] on de East Coast of South Africa. Edey de west of de [[Nahoon River]]. Ebe de only navigable river insyd South Africa.Dem establish de town of East London around am. ==Ein Course== [[File:Buffalo River Bridge - East London Harbour - Cape Colony 1875.jpg|left|thumb|Original bridge over Buffalo River in East London built by the [[John Charles Molteno|Molteno Government]] in the 1870s as part of its East London - Queenstown line]] De Buffalo River get ein source insyd de seeps den sponges of de [[Amatola Mountains]] for altitude of 1200 m.<ref name="Health">{{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Report Highlights Impacts on River Health (Buffalo River)|journal=The Water Wheel|issue=March/April|pages=8&ndash;11|url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|access-date=2013-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611070827/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> De river be 126 kilometres long wey edey drain catchment of 1287 square kilometres.<ref name="Health" /> From ein source, de river dey descend through indigenous forest insyd deeply incised channel, flanked by rock cliffs up to 120 metres high. De quality of dese headwaters be good. After only seven kilometres, de river dey face ein first obstruction, de small [[Maden Dam]], wey dem build insyd 1910 ({{Age|1910|6|3}} years old).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maden Dam details |url=https://www.artefacts.co.za/main/Buildings/bldgframes.php?bldgid=10208 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=www.artefacts.co.za}}</ref> Four kilometres downstream of Maden Dam, de much larger [[Rooikrantz Dam]] dey impound about five million cubic metres. Rooikrantz Dam dey supply water give [[King William's Town]] den ein surrounding areas. Twenty kilometres from ein source, for altitude of 450 metres above mean sea level, de [[Cwengcwe River]] den [[Izele River]] join de Buffalo from de northeast. From here de river dey run through undulating plains. Two major tributaries from de west wey dey join de middle section of de Buffalo River are the [[Mgqakwebe River]] just upstream of King William's Town and the [[Ngqokweni River]] at [[Zwelitsha]]. Plus de oda important tributary be de [[Yellowwoods River]], plus e dey flow from de north come straight enter Laing Dam. Wen e full, [[Laing Dam]] dey cover 203 hectares and e get 20 million cubic metres of water. From Laing Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow go east for 40 kilometres reach Bridle Drift Dam, wey be de biggest impoundment for de river, plus full supply volume of 101 million cubic metres. Small streams for de northern bank dey carry runoff come straight enter Bridle Drift Dam from [[Mdantsane]], wey be de second biggest township for Eastern Cape. From Bridle Drift Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow pass low-altitude coastal forest for twenty kilometres and e form de northern border of Umtiza Nature Reserve before e enter de [[Indian Ocean]] through de [[estuary]]<nowiki/>harbour of East London. ==Ein Ecology== The [[endangered]] [[border barb]] dey live insyd de waters of de Buffalo River.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/2573/0 Barbus trevelyani]</ref> Small population of de [[endangered]] [[Eastern Province rocky]] ''(Sandelia bainsii)'' dey insyd de Yellowwoods River, part of de Buffalo River basin.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all Sandelia bainsii]</ref> Presently dis river be part of de [[Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area]].<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> ==Ein Tributaries== Include die [[Mgqakwebe River]], [[Ngqokweni River]] den [[Yellowwoods River]], dis last river dey include some waterfalls de largest wey be de [[Yellowwoods Falls]], near [[Breidbach]]. == Sana spy == * [[List of rivers of South Africa]] * [[List of estuaries of South Africa]] * [[Umtiza Nature Reserve]] == References == {{reflist}} ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008000151/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/buffalo.html Buffalo River Estuary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111080504/http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/water_infrastructure.stm Amatola water] [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] [[Category:East London, South Africa]] nlsn214bnb7310ftki0r3zyvla01ron 102025 102023 2026-06-12T05:54:00Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102025 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002068}} {{short description|River in South Africa}} De '''Buffalo River''' dey insyd dee city of [[East London, South Africa|East London]] on de East Coast of South Africa. Edey de west of de [[Nahoon River]]. Ebe de only navigable river insyd South Africa.Dem establish de town of East London around am. ==Ein Course== [[File:Buffalo River Bridge - East London Harbour - Cape Colony 1875.jpg|left|thumb|Original bridge over Buffalo River in East London built by the [[John Charles Molteno|Molteno Government]] in the 1870s as part of its East London - Queenstown line]] De Buffalo River get ein source insyd de seeps den sponges of de [[Amatola Mountains]] for altitude of 1200 m.<ref name="Health">{{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Report Highlights Impacts on River Health (Buffalo River)|journal=The Water Wheel|issue=March/April|pages=8&ndash;11|url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|access-date=2013-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611070827/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> De river be 126 kilometres long wey edey drain catchment of 1287 square kilometres.<ref name="Health" /> From ein source, de river dey descend through indigenous forest insyd deeply incised channel, flanked by rock cliffs up to 120 metres high. De quality of dese headwaters be good. After only seven kilometres, de river dey face ein first obstruction, de small [[Maden Dam]], wey dem build insyd 1910 ({{Age|1910|6|3}} years old).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maden Dam details |url=https://www.artefacts.co.za/main/Buildings/bldgframes.php?bldgid=10208 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=www.artefacts.co.za}}</ref> Four kilometres downstream of Maden Dam, de much larger [[Rooikrantz Dam]] dey impound about five million cubic metres. Rooikrantz Dam dey supply water give [[King William's Town]] den ein surrounding areas. Twenty kilometres from ein source, for altitude of 450 metres above mean sea level, de [[Cwengcwe River]] den [[Izele River]] join de Buffalo from de northeast. From here de river dey run through undulating plains. Two major tributaries from de west wey dey join de middle section of de Buffalo River are the [[Mgqakwebe River]] just upstream of King William's Town and the [[Ngqokweni River]] at [[Zwelitsha]]. Plus de oda important tributary be de [[Yellowwoods River]], plus e dey flow from de north come straight enter Laing Dam. Wen e full, [[Laing Dam]] dey cover 203 hectares and e get 20 million cubic metres of water. From Laing Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow go east for 40 kilometres reach Bridle Drift Dam, wey be de biggest impoundment for de river, plus full supply volume of 101 million cubic metres. Small streams for de northern bank dey carry runoff come straight enter Bridle Drift Dam from [[Mdantsane]], wey be de second biggest township for Eastern Cape. From Bridle Drift Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow pass low-altitude coastal forest for twenty kilometres and e form de northern border of Umtiza Nature Reserve before e enter de [[Indian Ocean]] through de [[estuary]]<nowiki/>harbour of East London. ==Ein Ecology== The [[endangered]] [[border barb]] dey live insyd de waters of de Buffalo River.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/2573/0 Barbus trevelyani]</ref> Small population of de [[endangered]] [[Eastern Province rocky]] ''(Sandelia bainsii)'' dey insyd de Yellowwoods River, part of de Buffalo River basin.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all Sandelia bainsii]</ref> Presently dis river be part of de [[Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area]].<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> ==Ein Tributaries== Include die [[Mgqakwebe River]], [[Ngqokweni River]] den [[Yellowwoods River]], dis last river dey include some waterfalls de largest wey be de [[Yellowwoods Falls]], near [[Breidbach]]. == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_estuaries_of_South_Africa|List of estuaries of South Africa]] * [[:en:Umtiza_Nature_Reserve|Umtiza Nature Reserve]] == References == {{reflist}} ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008000151/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/buffalo.html Buffalo River Estuary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111080504/http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/water_infrastructure.stm Amatola water] [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] [[Category:East London, South Africa]] fnzflbo8cyc7ylvknao1e15i1btirqw 102026 102025 2026-06-12T05:55:31Z Yaw tuba 7 made corrections #AWC2026 102026 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002068}} {{short description|River in South Africa}} De '''Buffalo River''' dey insyd dee city of [[East London, South Africa|East London]] on de East Coast of South Africa. Edey de west of de [[Nahoon River]]. Ebe de only navigable river insyd South Africa.Dem establish de town of East London around am. ==Ein Course== [[File:Buffalo River Bridge - East London Harbour - Cape Colony 1875.jpg|left|thumb|Original bridge over Buffalo River in East London built by the [[John Charles Molteno|Molteno Government]] in the 1870s as part of its East London - Queenstown line]] De Buffalo River get ein source insyd de seeps den sponges of de [[Amatola Mountains]] for altitude of 1200 m.<ref name="Health">{{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Report Highlights Impacts on River Health (Buffalo River)|journal=The Water Wheel|issue=March/April|pages=8&ndash;11|url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|access-date=2013-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611070827/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> De river be 126 kilometres long wey edey drain catchment of 1287 square kilometres.<ref name="Health" /> From ein source, de river dey descend through indigenous forest insyd deeply incised channel, flanked by rock cliffs up to 120 metres high. De quality of dese headwaters be good. After only seven kilometres, de river dey face ein first obstruction, de small [[Maden Dam]], wey dem build insyd 1910 ({{Age|1910|6|3}} years old).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maden Dam details |url=https://www.artefacts.co.za/main/Buildings/bldgframes.php?bldgid=10208 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=www.artefacts.co.za}}</ref> Four kilometres downstream of Maden Dam, de much larger [[Rooikrantz Dam]] dey impound about five million cubic metres. Rooikrantz Dam dey supply water give [[King William's Town]] den ein surrounding areas. Twenty kilometres from ein source, for altitude of 450 metres above mean sea level, de [[Cwengcwe River]] den [[Izele River]] join de Buffalo from de northeast. From here de river dey run through undulating plains. Two major tributaries from de west wey dey join de middle section of de Buffalo River are the [[Mgqakwebe River]] just upstream of King William's Town and the [[Ngqokweni River]] at [[Zwelitsha]]. Plus de oda important tributary be de [[Yellowwoods River]], plus e dey flow from de north come straight enter Laing Dam. Wen e full, [[Laing Dam]] dey cover 203 hectares and e get 20 million cubic metres of water. From Laing Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow go east for 40 kilometres reach Bridle Drift Dam, wey be de biggest impoundment for de river, plus full supply volume of 101 million cubic metres. Small streams for de northern bank dey carry runoff come straight enter Bridle Drift Dam from [[Mdantsane]], wey be de second biggest township for Eastern Cape. From Bridle Drift Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow pass low-altitude coastal forest for twenty kilometres and e form de northern border of Umtiza Nature Reserve before e enter de [[Indian Ocean]] through de [[estuary]]<nowiki/>harbour of East London. ==Ein Ecology== The [[endangered]] [[border barb]] dey live insyd de waters of de Buffalo River.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/2573/0 Barbus trevelyani]</ref> Small population of de [[endangered]] [[Eastern Province rocky]] ''(Sandelia bainsii)'' dey insyd de Yellowwoods River, part of de Buffalo River basin.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all Sandelia bainsii]</ref> Presently dis river be part of de [[Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area]].<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> ==Ein Tributaries== Include die [[Mgqakwebe River]], [[Ngqokweni River]] den [[Yellowwoods River]], dis last river dey include some waterfalls de largest wey be de [[Yellowwoods Falls]], near [[Breidbach]]. == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_estuaries_of_South_Africa|List of estuaries of South Africa]] * [[:en:Umtiza_Nature_Reserve|Umtiza Nature Reserve]] ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008000151/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/buffalo.html Buffalo River Estuary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111080504/http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/water_infrastructure.stm Amatola water] == References == [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] [[Category:East London, South Africa]] <references /> a57r63qaqzpy9mdn6r5ri0f0bshgcnh 14 27478 102024 2026-06-12T05:35:12Z Yaw tuba 7 created category #AWC2026 102024 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27479 102027 2026-06-12T06:31:04Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102027 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002066}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} The '''Buffalo River''' (Zulu: ''uMzinyathi''; Afrikaans: ''Buffelsrivier'') be de biggest tributary of de [[Tugela River]] for [[South Africa]]. Eget total length of 426 km (265 mi), wey ein source dey for [[Majuba Hill]], wey dem dey call am “Hill of Doves” for de Zulu language. De hill dey northeast of Volksrust, close to de border between Mpumalanga den KwaZulu-Natal. De river dey follow south route enter KwaZulu-Natal pass Newcastle, den eturn southeast pass Rorke ein Drift before e join de Tugela River for Ngubevu, near Nkandla. For de nineteenth century, de Buffalo River form part of de boundary between de Colony of Natal denZululand. De Buffalo River get sam number of tributaries, including de [[Ingagane]] River from de southwest den de [[Blood River]] from de northeast, plus e join am near Kandi Mountain.<ref>{{Cite web |last=British Geological Survey 1998 - 2015 (c)NERC http://www.bgs.ac.uk mailto:www-bgs@bgs.ac.uk |title=British Geological Survey Website - Page not found |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/sadcreports/rsa1932humphreygeologyofvryheid.pdf |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150923220352/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/sadcreports/rsa1932humphreygeologyofvryheid.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-23 |access-date=2026-06-12 |website=www.bgs.ac.uk}}</ref> [[Rorke's Drift]] be sam ford across de Buffalo River wey be one of de famous places for de [[Anglo-Zulu War]] of 1878–79, den [[Isandhlwana]] be anodda important place for dat war. E dey about 20 km southeast of de river, not too far from where de Buffalo River den de Tugela River meet. == Ein Tributaries == * [[Batshe]] * [[Bazangoma (Buffalo)|Bzangoma]] * [[:en:Blood_River|Blood River]] * [[Cold Stream (Buffalo)|Cold Stream]] * [[Doringspruit (Buffalo)|Doringspruit]] * [[Dorpspruit (Buffalo)|Dorpspruit]] * [[Kweekspruit]] * [[Mangeni (Buffalo)|Mangeni River]] * [[Imbabane River (Buffalo)|Imbabane River]] * [[Mngeni (Buffalo)|Mngeni River]] * [[Mbizana River (Buffalo)]] * [[Ndweni]] * [[Ingagane]] * [[Sandspruit (Buffalo)|Sandspruit]] * [[Sibindi]] * [[Slang River (Buffalo)|Slang River]] * [[Teku River]] * [[Wasbank (Buffalo)|Wasbankspruit]] * [[Womeni]] == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] * [[:en:Drainage_basins_of_South_Africa|Drainage basins of South Africa]] == References == <references /> ==External links== *[http://www.sa-venues.com/activities/white-water-rafting.htm White Water Rafting in South Africa] [[Category:Tugela River]] [[Category:Rivers of KwaZulu-Natal]] 9ya9g5eri2c7c5o2gcdpc8us3ftfbl7 14 27480 102028 2026-06-12T06:31:54Z Yaw tuba 7 created category #AWC2026 102028 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27481 102029 2026-06-12T06:32:51Z Yaw tuba 7 created category #AWC2026 102029 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27482 102030 2026-06-12T06:33:48Z Yaw tuba 7 created category #AWC2026 102030 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27483 102031 2026-06-12T06:34:00Z Yaw tuba 7 created category #AWC2026 102031 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27484 102032 2026-06-12T06:54:56Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102032 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q3636498}} {{Short description|River in the Western Cape, South Africa}} {{About|the tributary of the Gourits River|other rivers|Groot River (disambiguation){{!}}Groot River}}The '''Groot River''' be river insyd de southern area of de [[Western Cape]] province of [[South Africa]]. Ebe right hand tributary of de [[Gourits River]]. ==Ein Course== De Groot River rise for de Komsberg Escarpment of de [[Great Karoo]],<ref>[https://rhodes-za.academia.edu/NigelBarker/Papers/595155/Clark_V.R._Barker_N.P._and_Mucina_L._2011_._The_Roggeveldberge_-_notes_on_a_botanically_hot_area_on_a_cold_corner_of_the_southern_Great_Escarpment_South_Africa._South_African_Journal_of_Botany_77_112-126 Clark, V.R., Barker, N.P., & Mucina, L. (2011). The Roggeveldberge – notes on a botanically hot area on a cold corner of the southern Great Escarpment, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 77: 112–126]</ref> about 40 km south of [[Sutherland, Northern Cape|Sutherland]] for [[Northern Cape]] Province, wey dem dey call am Komsberg for ein upper course. As e dey flow go southeast, edey turn de [[Buffels River (Groot River)|Buffels River]]. Den e bend go south through [[Laingsburg, Western Cape|Laingsburg]] den flow first go southeast, den south enter Floriskraal Dam, den southwest, before e flow south again den cut pass de [[Klein Swartberg Mountains]] through [[Buffelspoort]], sam deep gorge, enter insyd de [[Little Karoo]]. De river finally become de Groot River for de point where de Buffels River den de Klein-Swartberg River meet, about 50 km before e join de [[Touws River (river)|Touws River]]. After dat, e flow go east, pass [[Van Wyksdorp]], towards where e go join de Gourits River.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA16Gouritz.jpg Gouritz WMA 16]</ref> Ein main tributary be de Touws River wey rise for de [[Hex River Mountains]], den e flow go east through [[Touws River (town)|de town wey get de same name]], den south enter de Little Karoo, where e join de right bank of de Groot River. == Dams insyd de Groot River basin == * [[Floriskraal Dam]] (capacity {{convert|50300000|m3}}), * Bellair Dam (capacity {{convert|10100000|m3}}), * Miertjieskraal Dam == Sana spy == * [[:en:Grootrivier_Pass|Grootrivier Pass]] * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] ==References== [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] 75k8l9x0tj088rk8855yw8ckkv1ic3k 14 27485 102033 2026-06-12T06:56:57Z Yaw tuba 7 created category #AWC2026 102033 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27486 102038 2026-06-12T07:11:22Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102038 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q3642221}} {{Short description|River in the Eastern Cape, South Africa}} {{About|the tributary of the Gamtoos River|other rivers|Groot River (disambiguation){{!}}Groot River}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} De '''Groot River''' be river insyd de southern area of de [[Eastern Cape]] province of [[South Africa]]. Ebe right tributary of de [[Gamtoos River]].<ref>[http://www.ru.ac.za/static/institutes/iwr//wetland/data/GamtoosSYSTEM/GamtoosSystemReport.pdf Catchment L, the Gamtoos River System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222080910/http://www.ru.ac.za/static/institutes/iwr/wetland/data/GamtoosSYSTEM/GamtoosSystemReport.pdf |date=2014-12-22 }}</ref> Dis river dey pass through [[Steytlerville]]. ==Ein Course== De Groot River start for sam point wey de [[Kariega River (Groot River)|Kariega River]] den de [[Sout River]] meet, although dem dey enter de [[Beervlei Dam]] as de Sout River. Beyond de dam, de river dey turn de Groot River, wey e dey flow go southeast. Near de town of Steytlerville, edey turn small go south before ego move go east again. Last-last, edey bend go south again before ego join de [[Kouga River]] make dem form de Gamtoos for de place wey de rivers meet.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |title=Fish Tsitsikamma WMA 15 |access-date=28 March 2012 |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630195400/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] ==References== [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] 7d2u9ra0j2scb3w76jcuf3oolhrglbm 0 27487 102044 2026-06-12T07:23:39Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102044 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q5610287}} {{Short description|River in the Western Cape, South Africa}} {{About|tributary of the Riet River (Doring)|other rivers|Groot River (disambiguation){{!}}Groot River}} The '''Groot River''' (English: "Large River") is a river in the [[Western Cape Province]], [[South Africa]]. It is part of the [[Olifants/Doring River]] system. It is not to be confused with the [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)|Groot River of Eastern Cape]] or the [[Groot River (Southern Cape)|Groot River of Southern Cape]] provinces. ==Ein Course== Ebe formed by de confluence of de Twee River and Lang River, wey dem dey flow from de eastern slopes of de [[Cederberg Mountains]], southeast of [[Citrusdal]]. De Groot dey flow go east through de Skurweberge Mountains where e join de Riet River wey rise as de Winkelhaak River and Houdenbeks River north of Ceres. Below dis confluence, de Riet River be joined by de Brandkraals River and Matjies River, after which e flow insyd de Doring [[Doring River]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA17OlifantsDoorn.jpg Olifants/Doorn WMA 17]</ref> ==Ein Ecology== De [[Clanwilliam Yellowfish]] (''Labeobarbus capensis''), sam local [[endemism|endemic]] wey dey classify as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] by de [[IUCN]], dey dis river insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV212-web-conservation.pdf |title=Technical Report on the State of Yellowfishes in South Africa 2007 |access-date=2012-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629065416/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV212-web-conservation.pdf |archive-date=2017-06-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] ==References== <references /> == External links == *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083759/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/1483-1-09.pdf The Influence of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Temperature on the Distribution, Habitat, Use and Recruitment of Threatened Cyprinids in a Western Cape River, South Africa] *[http://www.ewisa.co.za/misc/RiverWCDoring/DORINGRiver_Tributories%20.htm Doring River: Tributaries] [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] 9sjoa61mk5kozrg0g60txr33uoritam 0 27488 102052 2026-06-12T07:44:52Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 102052 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Boyoma Falls''' ({{langx|sw|Maporomoko ya Maji ya Boyoma}}, {{langx|fr|Chutes de Boyoma}}, {{langx|nl|Boyomawatervallen}}),<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ndeo|first1=Oscar|last2=Hauffe|first2=Torsten|last3=Delicado|first3=Diana|last4=Busanga|first4=Alidor|last5=Albrecht|first5=Christian|date=2017-05-02|title=Mollusk communities of the central Congo River shaped by combined effects of barriers, environmental gradients, and species dispersal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316971348|journal=Journal of Limnology|volume=76|doi=10.4081/jlimnol.2017.1585|doi-access=free}}</ref> formerly known as '''Stanley Falls''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Chutes Stanley''; [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Stanleywatervallen''), be a series of seven [[Waterfall#Types|cataract]]s, each no more dan {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}} high, extending over more dan {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} along a curve of de Lualaba River between de river port towns of Ubundu den Kisangani (sanso dey known as Boyoma) insyd de Orientale Province of de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref name=Stanley>Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One {{ISBN|0486256677}}, Vol. Two {{ISBN|0486256685}}</ref>{{rp|Vol.Two,175}} De seven cataracts have a total drop of {{convert|61|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Dey form the largest waterfall by volume of annual flow rate insyd de world, exceeding both de Niagara Falls den de Iguazu Falls.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} == References == poymeug6xp72syfhsgkn4lc11av0nq7 102053 102052 2026-06-12T07:45:32Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 102053 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Boyoma Falls''' ({{langx|sw|Maporomoko ya Maji ya Boyoma}}, {{langx|fr|Chutes de Boyoma}}, {{langx|nl|Boyomawatervallen}}),<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ndeo|first1=Oscar|last2=Hauffe|first2=Torsten|last3=Delicado|first3=Diana|last4=Busanga|first4=Alidor|last5=Albrecht|first5=Christian|date=2017-05-02|title=Mollusk communities of the central Congo River shaped by combined effects of barriers, environmental gradients, and species dispersal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316971348|journal=Journal of Limnology|volume=76|doi=10.4081/jlimnol.2017.1585|doi-access=free}}</ref> formerly known as '''Stanley Falls''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Chutes Stanley''; [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Stanleywatervallen''), be a series of seven [[Waterfall#Types|cataract]]s, each no more dan {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}} high, extending over more dan {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} along a curve of de Lualaba River between de river port towns of Ubundu den Kisangani (sanso dey known as Boyoma) insyd de Orientale Province of de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref name=Stanley>Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One {{ISBN|0486256677}}, Vol. Two {{ISBN|0486256685}}</ref>{{rp|Vol.Two,175}} De seven cataracts have a total drop of {{convert|61|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Dey form the largest waterfall by volume of annual flow rate insyd de world, exceeding both de Niagara Falls den de Iguazu Falls.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} == References == ii93j85voystxbw00yyivecu53up3ur 0 27489 102055 2026-06-12T08:05:20Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 102055 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. == References == 86vdzssq9suxtlvsvbvcqxvwx1jwdkp 102056 102055 2026-06-12T08:09:51Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve article 102056 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. == References == qp4ivnx8mxle5a7k35d64y50fhdsit0 102057 102056 2026-06-12T08:11:34Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102057 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> == References == bit4bocq3rfkup0n2aolr7h2tufduh3 102058 102057 2026-06-12T08:13:06Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102058 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == References == 1avh8v5ejbc9zw2z3bnbqdwv1k1fzmm 102059 102058 2026-06-12T08:13:59Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102059 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == nmw9segjv9hebcw5wkhrpbss4fuiq1q 102060 102059 2026-06-12T08:14:39Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 102060 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == 48hfk1anskfy4qzvrtk14vkn7lx5dnv 102061 102060 2026-06-12T08:19:06Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102061 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] g350hkm3pyztshgh29fl3gn4zf17hzs 102062 102061 2026-06-12T08:19:41Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102062 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] ikkover5ikvy0y2wijtb0kl8tsxhfle 102063 102062 2026-06-12T08:20:11Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102063 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] edwkt14si40ydrs3nhycmqbmssxc4el 102064 102063 2026-06-12T08:20:55Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102064 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Lake Malawi]] jr78974iork6cw7jna0ry5bduy4u6xh 102065 102064 2026-06-12T08:21:30Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102065 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Lake Malawi]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Zambezi River]] 8ctdrj33edhprc1rif0mi38s4xfpldq 102066 102065 2026-06-12T08:22:18Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102066 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Lake Malawi]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Zambezi River]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] m25ls3xzwxzb45ixzh062suxri7a4cz 102067 102066 2026-06-12T08:22:43Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102067 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Lake Malawi]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Zambezi River]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] ns3hrbb1htqx8i578hh8rmj1tnjyizi 102068 102067 2026-06-12T08:23:10Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 102068 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Its length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River flows out of Lake Malawi den runs approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e entering de shallow Lake Malombe. E then drains Lake Malombe den flows south through Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus are common along its banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river drops approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} through a series of falls den gorges, including Kapachira Falls. Two hydroelectric dams have been built along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river turns southeast den enters de low-lying Mozambique plain. Its largest den one of its few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, joins de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass through a large stagnant area wey dey known as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]]'s Second Zambezi expedition traveled up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river's valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Ferry over Shire River in Mozambique.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Ferry crossing de Shire insyd Mozambique]] {{clear|left}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Shire River]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Lake Malawi]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Zambezi River]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:AWC2026]] fhtwllp135jhuneu3k3c4oj9cd102vi 0 27490 102069 2026-06-12T08:40:50Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102069 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q10990705}} De '''Olifants River''' (Afrikaans: Olifantsrivier) be sam river for de northwestern side of de [[Western Cape Province]] of [[South Africa]]. De upper den main catchment area of de Olifants River dey around [[Ceres, Western Cape|Ceres]] den de [[Cederberg]] mountains. De Clanwilliam and Bulshoek dams dey on top de river wey dem dey provide water for de towns den farms wey dey along de watercourse. De river dey about 285 km long wey e get catchment area of 46,220 km². E dey flow enter de [[Atlantic Ocean]] for [[Papendorp]], about 250 km north of [[Cape Town]]. ==Ein Watershed== De Olifants River rise for de [[Groot Winterhoek|Winterhoek Mountains]] north of Ceres. De mainstem be about 265 km long. De river dey flow go northwest through sam deep, narrow valley wey later widen den flatten become broad floodplain below [[Clanwilliam, Western Cape|Clanwilliam]]. De river eventually drain enter de Atlantic Ocean near [[Papendorp, Western Cape|Papendorp]]. For de mouth, de Olifants River split into two by sam island wey get interesting rock formations.<ref>Cornel Truter, ''West Coast tourist guide'', University of Cape Town Press, {{ISBN|9781919713243}}</ref> ===Ein Tributaries=== E main tributary be de [[Doring River]], wey e change name cam turn Melkboom/Oudrif before e join de Olifants. De tributaries wey dey flow from de east, like de [[Thee River]], [[Noordhoek River]], [[Boontjies River]], [[Rondegat River]] den de [[Jan Dissels River]], dem usually dey perennial, except de Sout River. De ones wey dey flow cam from de west, like de [[Ratel River]], [[Elandskloof River]] den de [[Seekoeivlei River]], dem be small-small den seasonal, so dem no dey contribute much to de flow for de system. <ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA17OlifantsDoorn.jpg Olifants/Doorn WMA 17]</ref> ==Ein Dams== Dams wey dey insyd de catchment area of de Olifants River: * [[Clanwilliam Dam]], plus storage capacity of {{convert|127000000|m3}} * [[Bulshoek Dam]], plus storage capacity of {{convert|7500000|m3}} De major towns below de Olifants/Doring river catchment include [[Lutzville]], [[Vredendal]] den [[Vanrhynsdorp]] wey dey insyd de lower catchment area den [[Clanwilliam, Western Cape|Clanwilliam]] den [[Citrusdal]] insyd de middle catchment areas. == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] ==References== <references /> ==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110115064450/http://www.floatinglines.com/2008/04/03/flyfishing-olifants-river-ceres-western-cape-2/ Flyfishing Olifants River] *[http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol091jj.html Military History Journal Vol 9 No 1 - June 1992] *[http://www.capeadventurezone.com/adventure-activities/River-Rafting River Rafting Adventures / Cape Town - Cape Adventure Zone] *[http://academic.sun.ac.za/cib/team/students/jeremy/jeremy.htm Invasion biology] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001907/http://www.nisc.co.za/oneAbstract?absId=1420 A preliminary assessment of the impact of alien rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) on indigenous fishes of the upper Berg River, Western Cape Province, South Africa] [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] ldst1ncs5gqs0v9xhvjhe8h6kowr1j1 102070 102069 2026-06-12T09:12:29Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102070 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q10990705}} De '''Olifants River''' (Afrikaans: Olifantsrivier) be sam river for de northwestern side of de [[Western Cape Province]] of [[South Africa]]. De upper den main catchment area of de Olifants River dey around [[Ceres, Western Cape|Ceres]] den de [[Cederberg]] mountains. De Clanwilliam and Bulshoek dams dey on top de river wey dem dey provide water for de towns den farms wey dey along de watercourse. De river dey about 285 km long wey e get catchment area of 46,220 km². E dey flow enter de [[Atlantic Ocean]] for [[Papendorp]], about 250 km north of [[Cape Town]]. ==Ein Watershed== De Olifants River rise for de [[Groot Winterhoek|Winterhoek Mountains]] north of Ceres. De mainstem be about 265 km long. De river dey flow go northwest through sam deep, narrow valley wey later widen den flatten become broad floodplain below [[Clanwilliam, Western Cape|Clanwilliam]]. De river eventually drain enter de Atlantic Ocean near [[Papendorp, Western Cape|Papendorp]]. For de mouth, de Olifants River split into two by sam island wey get interesting rock formations.<ref>Cornel Truter, ''West Coast tourist guide'', University of Cape Town Press, {{ISBN|9781919713243}}</ref> ===Ein Tributaries=== E main tributary be de [[Doring River]], wey e change name cam turn Melkboom/Oudrif before e join de Olifants. De tributaries wey dey flow from de east, like de [[Thee River]], [[Noordhoek River]], [[Boontjies River]], [[Rondegat River]] den de [[Jan Dissels River]], dem usually dey perennial, except de Sout River. De ones wey dey flow cam from de west, like de [[Ratel River]], [[Elandskloof River]] den de [[Seekoeivlei River]], dem be small-small den seasonal, so dem no dey contribute much to de flow for de system. <ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA17OlifantsDoorn.jpg Olifants/Doorn WMA 17]</ref> ==Ein Dams== Dams wey dey insyd de catchment area of de Olifants River: * [[Clanwilliam Dam]], plus storage capacity of {{convert|127000000|m3}} * [[Bulshoek Dam]], plus storage capacity of {{convert|7500000|m3}} De major towns below de Olifants/Doring river catchment include [[Lutzville]], [[Vredendal]] den [[Vanrhynsdorp]] wey dey insyd de lower catchment area den [[Clanwilliam, Western Cape|Clanwilliam]] den [[Citrusdal]] insyd de middle catchment areas. == Ein Ecology == Endemism for de rivers of de Olifants/Doring basin insyd be unusually high for South Africa, plus eight species wey dey only for dis system. De upper Olifants River be one of de main places where adult sawfins (''Pseudobarbus serra'') dey live.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Impson, D.|author2=Van der Walt, R.|author3=Jordaan, M.|date=2017|title=''Pseudobarbus serra''|volume=2017|article-number=e.T2569A100148283|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2569A100148283.en|access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> Dis local endemic species dem classify am as Endangered by de IUCN. For now, e don become so rare say fishing or angling fit even put am for danger, so people no suppose catch or kill am. E be long-lived den slow-growing species, e need several years make e grow well without disturbance, but e fit reach about 40 cm when e become adult after like ten years. CapeNature don try some trials to adapt am for aquaculture or fishery, but dis one need better conservation of de river ecosystem. De Clanwilliam redfin ("P." calidus)<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Van der Walt, R.|author2=Jordaan, M.|author3=Impson, D.|date=2017|title=''Pseudobarbus calidus''|volume=2017|article-number=e.T2562A100139530|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2562A100139530.en|access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> be another threatened den legally protected species wey dey Olifants River; ebe chao.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007ab)</ref> De Clanwilliam yellowfish (''Labeobarbus seeberi'') be another big cyprinid for dis basin wey be endemic to de Western Cape region. Dem don try some captive breeding work for am den e stocks dey in better shape. However, e fit don disappear for Olifants River, den at least e almost sure say e no dey again between [[Olifants Gorge]] den [[Clanwilliam Dam]].<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Impson, D.|author2=Van der Walt, R.|author3=Jordaan, M.|date=2017|title=''Labeobarbus seeberi''|volume=2017|article-number=e.T63290A100163027|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63290A100163027.en|access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> Whether dem go reintroduce am no clear, because sawfin den Clanwilliam yellowfish adults probably dey compete for same ecological space, den until dem restore Olifants River well well for ecological level, both of dem fit no fit survive well at di same time.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007b)</ref> De Olifants River mark de northern limit of de [[Cape galaxias]] (''Galaxias zebratus''), sam South African fish species wey dey share de same habitat with imported trout species den dey live for area between de Olifants den de [[Keurbooms River]]. Although for South Africa dis relatively delicate fish be only Near Threatened, for [[Australia]] species of de same genus don dey driven go extinction by competing salmonids.<ref>[http://www.ru.ac.za/static/affiliates/am/m&g/mg17.htm Albany Museum - Freshwater Ichthyology]</ref> Other species wey dey occur for de Olifants riverine system include [[Twee River redfin]] (''Pseudobarbus erubescens''), [[Fiery redfin]] (''Pseudobarbus phlegethon''), Austroglanis barnardi, Clanwilliam rock-catfish (''Austroglanis gilli''), Chubbyhead barb (''Enteromius anoplus''), den Clanwilliam sandfish (''Labeo seeberi''). De most severe biological threat to de river ecosystem be probably de [[Smallmouth Bass]] (''Micropterus dolomieu''). Originally dem introduce am for sport fishing, but ecam turn sam kind pest by depleting de stocks of other fish species. Dem dey encourage e eradication under de Cape Action for People den de Environment program. Non-biological threats be mainly excessive removal of river water for irrigation, wey de resultant toxic surface runoff from plantations (especially agrumes). Dem often dey grow these crops right up to de river bank, without leaving enough natural vegetation to filter out pesticides den fertilizer den stop erosion, den dis dey cause both de river den adjacent cropland to degrade.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007abc)</ref> == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] ==References== <references /> ==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110115064450/http://www.floatinglines.com/2008/04/03/flyfishing-olifants-river-ceres-western-cape-2/ Flyfishing Olifants River] *[http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol091jj.html Military History Journal Vol 9 No 1 - June 1992] *[http://www.capeadventurezone.com/adventure-activities/River-Rafting River Rafting Adventures / Cape Town - Cape Adventure Zone] *[http://academic.sun.ac.za/cib/team/students/jeremy/jeremy.htm Invasion biology] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001907/http://www.nisc.co.za/oneAbstract?absId=1420 A preliminary assessment of the impact of alien rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) on indigenous fishes of the upper Berg River, Western Cape Province, South Africa] [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] mnr4gqh4cggxxxwm4k7st0ovryf9k81